Early Mining and Metalworking: its impact on the Environment
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Published
Jan 29, 2022
Abstract
Historic mining and metalworking has altered the landscape in numerous ways, including changes in woodland composition, promoting river valley alluviation and sedimentation, and possibly causing pollution on a local scale. However, until recently, relatively little was known about the environmental impact of early mining and metalworking. This paper provides a review of new research, based on archaeological and palaeoenvironmental analyses (principally of pollen), which examines the effect of early metallurgical industries on the landscape, in particular on woodlands. Results from pollen analysis of peat deposits adjacent to two Bronze Age copper mines and one Iron Age ironworking site suggest that early mining and metalworking activities did not have a severe impact on woodlands. Woodland clearances were generally small-scale during the inferred period of industrial operations.
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References
Aiano, AR (1977) 'Romano-British ironworking sites - a gazetteer', Historical Metallurgy 11 (2) 73-82.
Ambers, J (1990) 'Radiocarbon calibration and early mining: some British Museum radiocarbon dates for Welsh copper mines', in P and S Crew (eds), Early Mining in the British 7sles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 Maentwrog), 59-63.
Baumann, A (1984) 'Extreme heavy metal concentrations in sediments of the Oker - a river draining an old mining and smelting area in the Harz Mountains, Germany', in J 0 Nriagu (ed), Environmental impacts of Smelters. Advances in Environmental Science and Technology 15 (Chichester), 579-91.
Bell, M and Walker, M J C (1992) Late Quaternary Environmental Change (Harlow).
Bick, DE (1990) 'Early iron ore production from the Forest of Dean and district'. Historical Metallurgy 24, 39-42.
Bielenin, K (1986) 'Bloom smithies on early historic smelting sites in the Holy Cross Mountains', in B G Scott and H Cleere (eds), The crafts of the Blacksmith. Proceedings of the symposium of UISPP Comite pour la Siderurgie Ancienne (Belfast), 35-46.
Birks, H H, Birks, H J B, Kaland, PE and Moe, D (eds) (1988) The Cultural Landscape - past, present and future (Cambridge).
Blockley, K (1989) Prestatyn 1984-5. British Archaeological Reports, British Series 210 (Oxford).
Briggs, CS (1988) 'The location and recognition of metal ores in pre-Roman and Roman Britain and their contemporary exploitation', in J Ellis-Jones (ed), Aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy (Bangor), 106-114.
Briggs, CS (1991) 'Early mines in Wales: the date of Copa Hill', Archaeology in Wales 31, 5-7.
Britnell, W (1989) 'The Collfryn hillslope enclosure, Llansantffraid Deuddwr, Powys: excavations 1980-82', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 55, 89-134.
Buchanan, PT (1992) 'Metalliferous plant communities: the flora of lead smelting in the upper Nent Valley', in L Willies and D Cranstone (eds), Boles and Smeltmills (Matlock Bath), 58-61.
Budd, P, Gale, D, Pollard, AM, Thomas, R G and Williams, P A ( 1992) 'The early development of metallurgy in the British Isles', Antiquity 66, 677-686.
Cemych, E N (1978) 'Aibunar - A Balkan copper mine of the fourth millennium BC (investigations of the years 1971, 1972 and 1974)', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 44, 203-217.
Chambers, FM (ed) (1993) Climate change and human impact on the Landscape (London).
Cleere, H (1974) 'The Roman iron industry of the Weald and its connections with the Classis Britannica', Archaeological Journal 131, 171-199.
Cleere, H (1976) 'Some operating parameters for Roman ironworks', Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 13, 233-246.
Crew, P (1986) 'Bryn y Castell hillfort - a late prehistoric iron-working settlement in north-west Wales', in B G Scott and H Cleere (eds), The crafts of the Blacksmith. Proceedings of the symposium of UISPP Comite pour la Siderurgie Ancienne (Belfast), 91-100.
Crew, P (1990) 'In decline or prohibition? The end of prehistoric ironworking in north-west Wales', in P Benoit and P Fluzin (eds), lron Paleometallurgy and cultures. Proceedings of the symposium of the UISPP Comite de la Siderurgie Ancienne (Belfort).
Crew, P (1991) 'Late Iron Age and Roman iron production in north-west Wales', in B C Bumham and J L Davies (eds), Conquest, Co-existence and Change: Recent Archaeological Work in Roman Wales. Trivium 25 (Lampeter). 150-160.
Crew, P and Crew, S (eds) (1990) Early Mining in the British lsles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog).
Darby, H C (1951) 'The clearing of the English woodlands', Geography 36, 71-83.
Darby, H C (1956) 'The clearing of woodland in Europe', in W L Thomas (ed), Man's role in changing the face of the earth (Chicago).
Ellis-Jones, J (ed) (1988) Aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy (Bangor).
Evans, JG, Limbrey, S and Cleere, H (eds) (1975) The effect of man on the Landscape: the highland zone. CBA Research Report No 11 (London).
Faegri, K, Kaland, P and Krzywinski, K (1989) Textbook of Pollen Analysis. 4th edn (Chichester).
Fanning, T (1981) 'Excavation of an early Christian cemetery and settlement at Reask, Co. Kerry', Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 81 C, 3-172.
Flinn, M W (1959) 'Timber and the advance of technology: a reconsideration', Annals of Science 15, 109-120.
Godwin, H (1975) History of the British Flora. 2nd edn (Cambridge).
Hammersley, G (1973) 'The charcoal iron industry and its fuel, 1540-1750', Economic History Review 26, 593-613.
Hodgkinson, J Sand Tebutt, CF (1985) 'A fieldwork study of the Romano-British iron industry in the Weald of southern England', in PT Craddock and M J Hughes (eds), Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48 (London).
Jackson, DA and Tylecote, R F (1988) 'Two new Romano-British ironworking sites in Northamptonshire: a new type of furnace?' Britannia 19, 275-299.
Jobey, G (1962) 'An Iron Age homestead at West Brandon, Durham', Archaeologia Aeliana 40, 1-31.
Jones, M ( ed) (1988) Archaeology and the fl.ora of the British Isles. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph Number 14 (Oxford).
Jones, R, Chambers, FM and Benson-Evans, K (1991) 'Heavy metals (Cu and Zn) in recent sediments of Llangorse Lake, Wales: non-ferrous smelting, Napoleon and the price of wheat - a palaeoecological study', Hydrobiologia 214, 149-154.
Jovanevic. B (1979) 'The technology of primary copper mining in south east Europe', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 45, 103-110.
Lee, JA and Tallis, J H (1973) 'Regional and historical aspects of lead pollution in Britain', Nature 245, 216-218.
Lewin, J, Bradley, SB and Macklin, MG (1983) 'Historical valley alluviation in mid-Wales', Geological Journal 18, 331-350.
Lewis, A (1990) 'Underground exploration of the Great Orme copper mines', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 5-11.
Lindsay, J M (1975) 'Charcoal iron smelting and its fuel supply; the example of Lom fumace, Argyllshire, 1753-1876', Journal of Historical Geography 1(3), 283-298.
Livett, E A (1988) 'Geochemical monitoring of atmospheric heavy metal pollution: theory and application', Advances in Ecological Research 18, 65-177.
Lucas, A T ( 1954) 'Bogwood: a study in rural economy', Bealoideas Journal of Folklore of Ire land Society 23, 71-134.
Macklin, MG and Lewin, J (1986) 'Terraced fills of Pleistocene and Holocene age in the Rheidol Valley, Wales', Journal of Quaternary Science 1(1), 21-34.
Macklin, MG, Passmore, DG, Stevenson, AC, Cowly, D C, Edwards, D N and O'Brien, CF (1991) 'Holocene alluviation and land-use change on Callaly Moor,
Northumberland, England', Journal of Quaternary Science 6(3), 225-232.
Martin, MN, Coughtrey, P J and Ward, P (1979) 'Historical aspects of heavy metal pollution in the Gordano Valley', Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists Society 37, 91-97.
Mighall, TM (1992) Palaeoecological aspects of early mining and metalworking in upland Wales. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Keele.
Mighall, TM and Chambers, FM (1989) 'The environmental impact of ironworking at Bryn y Castell hillfort, Merioneth', Archaeology in Wales 29, 17-21.
Mighall, TM and Chambers, FM (1993) 'The environmental impact of prehistoric mining at Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth, Wales', The Holocene 3(3), 260-264.
Mighall, T M, Blackford, J J and Chambers, F M (1990) 'Bryn y Castell - Late Bronze Age clearances or climatic change?' Archaeology in Wales 30, 14-16.
Money, J H (1974) 'Iron Age and Romano-British ironworking in Minepit Wood, Rotherfield, Sussex', Historical Metallurgy 8(1), 1-19.
Moore, PD (1973) "The influence of prehistoric cultures upon the initiation and spread of blanket bog in upland Wales', Nature 241, 350-353.
Moore, PD (1975) 'Origin of blanket mire', Nature 256, 267-269.
Moore, PD (1988) 'The development of moorlands and upland mires', in M Jones ( ed), Archaeology and the flora in the British Isles. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph 14 (Oxford), 116-122.
Moore, PD, Webb, JA and Collinson, ME (1991) Pollen analysis. 2nd edn (London).
Musson, CR, Britnell, W, Northover, J P and Salter, C J (1992) 'Excavations and metal-working at Llwyn Bryn-dinas hillfort, Llangedwyn, Clwyd', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, 265-284.
O'Brien, W F (1987) 'The dating of the Mount Gabriel-type copper mines of west Cork', Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society 92, 50- 70.
O'Brien, W F (1990) 'Prehistoric copper mining in south-west Ireland: the Mount Gabriel-type mines', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 56, 269-290.
O'Brien, W F (1994) Bronze Age copper mining in Ireland (Galway, in press).
Pickin, J (1990) 'Stone tools and early meta! mining in England and Wales', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 39-42.
Pickin, J and Timberlake, S (1988) 'Stone hammers and firesetting: a preliminary experiment at Cwmystwyth Mine, Dyfed', Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society 10(3), 165-167.
Pittioni, R (1951) 'Prehistoric copper mining in Austria: problems and facts', Annual Report of the Institute of Archaeology, University of London 7, 16-43.
Pott, R (1986) 'Der pollenanalytische Nachweis extensiver Waldbewirtschaftungen in den Haubergen des Siegerlande', in K-E Behre (ed), Anthropogenie indicators in polten diagrams (Rotterdam), 124-134.
Rackham, 0 (1980) Ancient Woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England (London).
Rackham, 0 (1986) The History of the Countryside (London).
Richardson, K M and Young, A (1951) 'An Iron Age site on the Chiltems (Chinnor)', Archaeological Journal 31, 132-148.
Savory, H N (1952-55) 'The excavation of an early Iron Age fortified settlement on Mynydd Bychan, Llyswomey (Glam.) 1949-50', Archaeologia Cambrensis 104, 14-51.
Scott, B G (1990) Early lrish ironworking. Ulster Museum Publication Number 266 (Belfast).
Scott, B G and Cleere, H (eds) (1986) The Crafts of the Blacksmith. Proceedings of the Symposium of the UISPP
Comite pour la Siderurgie Ancienne, Belfast 1984 (Belfast).
Scott, W L (1934) 'Excavation of Rudh'an Dunain Cave, Skye'. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 68, 200-232.
Shepherd, R (1980) Prehistoric Mining and Allied lndustries (London).
Shepherd, R (1993) Ancient Mining (London).
Stos-Gale, Z, Gale, N and Papastamataki, A (1988) 'An early Bronze Age copper smelting site on the Aegean island of Kythnos II: Scientific evidence', in J Ellis-Jones (ed) Aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy (Bangor), 11-22.
Timberlake, S (1987) 'An archaeological investigation of early mine workings on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth', Archaeology in Wales 27, 18-20.
Timberlake, S (1990) 'Excavations at Parys Mountain and Nantyreira', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 15-21.
Timberlake, S (1990a) 'Excavations at an early mining site on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth, Dyfed 1989 and 1990', Archaeology in Wales 30, 7-13.
Timberlake, S (1990b) 'Excavations and fieldwork on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 22-29.
Timberlake, Sand Switsur, R (1988) 'An archaeological investigation of early rnineworkings on Copa Hill: new evidence for prehistoric mining', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 54, 329-333.
Tylecote, R F (1986) The prehistory of metallurgy in the British lsles (London).
Tylecote, R F (1987) The early history of metallurgy in Europe (London).
Wild, J P (1974) 'Roman settlement in the Lower Nene Valley', Archaeological Journal 131, 140-171.
Williams, TM (1991) 'A sedimentary record of the deposition of heavy metals and magnetic oxides in the Loch Dee basin, Galloway, Scotland, since c. AD1500', The Holocene 1(2), 142-150.
Winbolt, SE (1930) 'Excavations at Saxonbury Camp', Sussex Archaeologica/ Co!lections 71, 223-36.
Van Geel, B, Bregman, R, Van der Molen, PC, Dupont, L M and Van Driel-Murray, C (1989) 'Holocene raised bog deposits in the Netherlands as geochemical archives of prehistoric aerosols', Acta Botanica Neerlandica 38(4), 467-476.
Ambers, J (1990) 'Radiocarbon calibration and early mining: some British Museum radiocarbon dates for Welsh copper mines', in P and S Crew (eds), Early Mining in the British 7sles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 Maentwrog), 59-63.
Baumann, A (1984) 'Extreme heavy metal concentrations in sediments of the Oker - a river draining an old mining and smelting area in the Harz Mountains, Germany', in J 0 Nriagu (ed), Environmental impacts of Smelters. Advances in Environmental Science and Technology 15 (Chichester), 579-91.
Bell, M and Walker, M J C (1992) Late Quaternary Environmental Change (Harlow).
Bick, DE (1990) 'Early iron ore production from the Forest of Dean and district'. Historical Metallurgy 24, 39-42.
Bielenin, K (1986) 'Bloom smithies on early historic smelting sites in the Holy Cross Mountains', in B G Scott and H Cleere (eds), The crafts of the Blacksmith. Proceedings of the symposium of UISPP Comite pour la Siderurgie Ancienne (Belfast), 35-46.
Birks, H H, Birks, H J B, Kaland, PE and Moe, D (eds) (1988) The Cultural Landscape - past, present and future (Cambridge).
Blockley, K (1989) Prestatyn 1984-5. British Archaeological Reports, British Series 210 (Oxford).
Briggs, CS (1988) 'The location and recognition of metal ores in pre-Roman and Roman Britain and their contemporary exploitation', in J Ellis-Jones (ed), Aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy (Bangor), 106-114.
Briggs, CS (1991) 'Early mines in Wales: the date of Copa Hill', Archaeology in Wales 31, 5-7.
Britnell, W (1989) 'The Collfryn hillslope enclosure, Llansantffraid Deuddwr, Powys: excavations 1980-82', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 55, 89-134.
Buchanan, PT (1992) 'Metalliferous plant communities: the flora of lead smelting in the upper Nent Valley', in L Willies and D Cranstone (eds), Boles and Smeltmills (Matlock Bath), 58-61.
Budd, P, Gale, D, Pollard, AM, Thomas, R G and Williams, P A ( 1992) 'The early development of metallurgy in the British Isles', Antiquity 66, 677-686.
Cemych, E N (1978) 'Aibunar - A Balkan copper mine of the fourth millennium BC (investigations of the years 1971, 1972 and 1974)', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 44, 203-217.
Chambers, FM (ed) (1993) Climate change and human impact on the Landscape (London).
Cleere, H (1974) 'The Roman iron industry of the Weald and its connections with the Classis Britannica', Archaeological Journal 131, 171-199.
Cleere, H (1976) 'Some operating parameters for Roman ironworks', Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 13, 233-246.
Crew, P (1986) 'Bryn y Castell hillfort - a late prehistoric iron-working settlement in north-west Wales', in B G Scott and H Cleere (eds), The crafts of the Blacksmith. Proceedings of the symposium of UISPP Comite pour la Siderurgie Ancienne (Belfast), 91-100.
Crew, P (1990) 'In decline or prohibition? The end of prehistoric ironworking in north-west Wales', in P Benoit and P Fluzin (eds), lron Paleometallurgy and cultures. Proceedings of the symposium of the UISPP Comite de la Siderurgie Ancienne (Belfort).
Crew, P (1991) 'Late Iron Age and Roman iron production in north-west Wales', in B C Bumham and J L Davies (eds), Conquest, Co-existence and Change: Recent Archaeological Work in Roman Wales. Trivium 25 (Lampeter). 150-160.
Crew, P and Crew, S (eds) (1990) Early Mining in the British lsles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog).
Darby, H C (1951) 'The clearing of the English woodlands', Geography 36, 71-83.
Darby, H C (1956) 'The clearing of woodland in Europe', in W L Thomas (ed), Man's role in changing the face of the earth (Chicago).
Ellis-Jones, J (ed) (1988) Aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy (Bangor).
Evans, JG, Limbrey, S and Cleere, H (eds) (1975) The effect of man on the Landscape: the highland zone. CBA Research Report No 11 (London).
Faegri, K, Kaland, P and Krzywinski, K (1989) Textbook of Pollen Analysis. 4th edn (Chichester).
Fanning, T (1981) 'Excavation of an early Christian cemetery and settlement at Reask, Co. Kerry', Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 81 C, 3-172.
Flinn, M W (1959) 'Timber and the advance of technology: a reconsideration', Annals of Science 15, 109-120.
Godwin, H (1975) History of the British Flora. 2nd edn (Cambridge).
Hammersley, G (1973) 'The charcoal iron industry and its fuel, 1540-1750', Economic History Review 26, 593-613.
Hodgkinson, J Sand Tebutt, CF (1985) 'A fieldwork study of the Romano-British iron industry in the Weald of southern England', in PT Craddock and M J Hughes (eds), Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48 (London).
Jackson, DA and Tylecote, R F (1988) 'Two new Romano-British ironworking sites in Northamptonshire: a new type of furnace?' Britannia 19, 275-299.
Jobey, G (1962) 'An Iron Age homestead at West Brandon, Durham', Archaeologia Aeliana 40, 1-31.
Jones, M ( ed) (1988) Archaeology and the fl.ora of the British Isles. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph Number 14 (Oxford).
Jones, R, Chambers, FM and Benson-Evans, K (1991) 'Heavy metals (Cu and Zn) in recent sediments of Llangorse Lake, Wales: non-ferrous smelting, Napoleon and the price of wheat - a palaeoecological study', Hydrobiologia 214, 149-154.
Jovanevic. B (1979) 'The technology of primary copper mining in south east Europe', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 45, 103-110.
Lee, JA and Tallis, J H (1973) 'Regional and historical aspects of lead pollution in Britain', Nature 245, 216-218.
Lewin, J, Bradley, SB and Macklin, MG (1983) 'Historical valley alluviation in mid-Wales', Geological Journal 18, 331-350.
Lewis, A (1990) 'Underground exploration of the Great Orme copper mines', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 5-11.
Lindsay, J M (1975) 'Charcoal iron smelting and its fuel supply; the example of Lom fumace, Argyllshire, 1753-1876', Journal of Historical Geography 1(3), 283-298.
Livett, E A (1988) 'Geochemical monitoring of atmospheric heavy metal pollution: theory and application', Advances in Ecological Research 18, 65-177.
Lucas, A T ( 1954) 'Bogwood: a study in rural economy', Bealoideas Journal of Folklore of Ire land Society 23, 71-134.
Macklin, MG and Lewin, J (1986) 'Terraced fills of Pleistocene and Holocene age in the Rheidol Valley, Wales', Journal of Quaternary Science 1(1), 21-34.
Macklin, MG, Passmore, DG, Stevenson, AC, Cowly, D C, Edwards, D N and O'Brien, CF (1991) 'Holocene alluviation and land-use change on Callaly Moor,
Northumberland, England', Journal of Quaternary Science 6(3), 225-232.
Martin, MN, Coughtrey, P J and Ward, P (1979) 'Historical aspects of heavy metal pollution in the Gordano Valley', Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists Society 37, 91-97.
Mighall, TM (1992) Palaeoecological aspects of early mining and metalworking in upland Wales. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Keele.
Mighall, TM and Chambers, FM (1989) 'The environmental impact of ironworking at Bryn y Castell hillfort, Merioneth', Archaeology in Wales 29, 17-21.
Mighall, TM and Chambers, FM (1993) 'The environmental impact of prehistoric mining at Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth, Wales', The Holocene 3(3), 260-264.
Mighall, T M, Blackford, J J and Chambers, F M (1990) 'Bryn y Castell - Late Bronze Age clearances or climatic change?' Archaeology in Wales 30, 14-16.
Money, J H (1974) 'Iron Age and Romano-British ironworking in Minepit Wood, Rotherfield, Sussex', Historical Metallurgy 8(1), 1-19.
Moore, PD (1973) "The influence of prehistoric cultures upon the initiation and spread of blanket bog in upland Wales', Nature 241, 350-353.
Moore, PD (1975) 'Origin of blanket mire', Nature 256, 267-269.
Moore, PD (1988) 'The development of moorlands and upland mires', in M Jones ( ed), Archaeology and the flora in the British Isles. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph 14 (Oxford), 116-122.
Moore, PD, Webb, JA and Collinson, ME (1991) Pollen analysis. 2nd edn (London).
Musson, CR, Britnell, W, Northover, J P and Salter, C J (1992) 'Excavations and metal-working at Llwyn Bryn-dinas hillfort, Llangedwyn, Clwyd', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, 265-284.
O'Brien, W F (1987) 'The dating of the Mount Gabriel-type copper mines of west Cork', Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society 92, 50- 70.
O'Brien, W F (1990) 'Prehistoric copper mining in south-west Ireland: the Mount Gabriel-type mines', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 56, 269-290.
O'Brien, W F (1994) Bronze Age copper mining in Ireland (Galway, in press).
Pickin, J (1990) 'Stone tools and early meta! mining in England and Wales', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 39-42.
Pickin, J and Timberlake, S (1988) 'Stone hammers and firesetting: a preliminary experiment at Cwmystwyth Mine, Dyfed', Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society 10(3), 165-167.
Pittioni, R (1951) 'Prehistoric copper mining in Austria: problems and facts', Annual Report of the Institute of Archaeology, University of London 7, 16-43.
Pott, R (1986) 'Der pollenanalytische Nachweis extensiver Waldbewirtschaftungen in den Haubergen des Siegerlande', in K-E Behre (ed), Anthropogenie indicators in polten diagrams (Rotterdam), 124-134.
Rackham, 0 (1980) Ancient Woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England (London).
Rackham, 0 (1986) The History of the Countryside (London).
Richardson, K M and Young, A (1951) 'An Iron Age site on the Chiltems (Chinnor)', Archaeological Journal 31, 132-148.
Savory, H N (1952-55) 'The excavation of an early Iron Age fortified settlement on Mynydd Bychan, Llyswomey (Glam.) 1949-50', Archaeologia Cambrensis 104, 14-51.
Scott, B G (1990) Early lrish ironworking. Ulster Museum Publication Number 266 (Belfast).
Scott, B G and Cleere, H (eds) (1986) The Crafts of the Blacksmith. Proceedings of the Symposium of the UISPP
Comite pour la Siderurgie Ancienne, Belfast 1984 (Belfast).
Scott, W L (1934) 'Excavation of Rudh'an Dunain Cave, Skye'. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 68, 200-232.
Shepherd, R (1980) Prehistoric Mining and Allied lndustries (London).
Shepherd, R (1993) Ancient Mining (London).
Stos-Gale, Z, Gale, N and Papastamataki, A (1988) 'An early Bronze Age copper smelting site on the Aegean island of Kythnos II: Scientific evidence', in J Ellis-Jones (ed) Aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy (Bangor), 11-22.
Timberlake, S (1987) 'An archaeological investigation of early mine workings on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth', Archaeology in Wales 27, 18-20.
Timberlake, S (1990) 'Excavations at Parys Mountain and Nantyreira', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 15-21.
Timberlake, S (1990a) 'Excavations at an early mining site on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth, Dyfed 1989 and 1990', Archaeology in Wales 30, 7-13.
Timberlake, S (1990b) 'Excavations and fieldwork on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth', in P and S Crew (eds) Early Mining in the British Isles. Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper No 1 (Maentwrog), 22-29.
Timberlake, Sand Switsur, R (1988) 'An archaeological investigation of early rnineworkings on Copa Hill: new evidence for prehistoric mining', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 54, 329-333.
Tylecote, R F (1986) The prehistory of metallurgy in the British lsles (London).
Tylecote, R F (1987) The early history of metallurgy in Europe (London).
Wild, J P (1974) 'Roman settlement in the Lower Nene Valley', Archaeological Journal 131, 140-171.
Williams, TM (1991) 'A sedimentary record of the deposition of heavy metals and magnetic oxides in the Loch Dee basin, Galloway, Scotland, since c. AD1500', The Holocene 1(2), 142-150.
Winbolt, SE (1930) 'Excavations at Saxonbury Camp', Sussex Archaeologica/ Co!lections 71, 223-36.
Van Geel, B, Bregman, R, Van der Molen, PC, Dupont, L M and Van Driel-Murray, C (1989) 'Holocene raised bog deposits in the Netherlands as geochemical archives of prehistoric aerosols', Acta Botanica Neerlandica 38(4), 467-476.
How to Cite
Mighall, T., & Chambers, F. (2022). Early Mining and Metalworking: its impact on the Environment. Historical Metallurgy, 27(2), 71-83. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/487
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Mighall, T., & Chambers, F. (2022). Early Mining and Metalworking: its impact on the Environment. Historical Metallurgy, 27(2), 71-83. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/487