Liquid steel in Anglo-Saxon England
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Published
Jan 1, 2022
Abstract
Prior to Huntsman’s discoveries in Sheffield in the 1740s, steel production in Western Europe, and in England in particular, has been assumed to be by solid-state carburization of malleable iron, a process often referred to as cementation. Here we present archaeometallurgical data that Saxon smiths in 8th-9th century AD England were using decarburization of molten cast iron to produce steel of comparable quality to that produced by Huntsman 1000 years later. The evidence derives from metallurgical analysis of edged tools and stock iron, and crucially the analysis of pieces of ferrous material that lack distinctive artefactual form. The evidence presented here will necessitate a re-assessment of Saxon ironworking technology and the early occurrence of cast iron fragments in the archaeological record, and has far-reaching implications for our (lack of) understanding of the development of iron technology.
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References
Andrews P A (ed) 1997, Excavations at Hamwic: Vol 2: Excavations at Six Dials (York: CBA Research Report 109).
Angus H T 1976, Cast Iron (London).
Bronson B 1986, ‘The making and selling of Wootz: A crucible steel of India’, Archaeomaterials 1, 13-51.
Craddock P T 1995, Early Metal Mining and Production (Edinburgh).
Cuccini Tizzoni C 1999, ‘Ponte di Val Gabbia III: la forgia e i bassofuochi tra Tardoantico e alto Medioevo’, in C Cuccini Tizzoni and M Tizzoni (eds), La miniera perduta: Cinque anni di richerche archaeometallurgie nel territorio di Bienno (Breno), 93-117.
Fluzin P 1999, ‘Ponte di Val Gabbia III: i reperti metallici dalla forgia. Primi risultati dello studi metallografico’, in C Cuccini Tizzoni and M Tizzoni (eds), La miniera perduta: Cinque anni di richerche archaeometallurgie nel territorio di Bienno (Breno), 189-93.
Lang J, Craddock P T and Simpson St J 1998, ‘New evidence for early crucible steel’, Historical Metallurgy 32(1), 7-14.
Lowe T L 1989, ‘Solidification and the crucible processing of Deccani ancient steel’, in R Trevedi, J A Sekhar and J Mazumdar (eds), Principles of solidification and materials processing (New Delhi).
Mack I J 1998, Artefactual evidence for iron smithing from Hamwic, Saxon Southampton. Unpublished undergraduate dissertation, University of Bradford.
McDonnell J G 1986, The classification of early ironworking slags. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Aston.
McDonnell J G 1987a, Metallurgical analysis of six iron knives from Hamwih, Southampton. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 93/87.
McDonnell J G 1987b, Analysis of eight iron knives and four other tools from Hamwih, Southampton. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 137/87.
McDonnell J G, Fell V and Andrews P 1991, The typology of Saxon knives from Hamwih. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 96/91.
McDonnell J G 1992, ‘Metallography data’, in P Ottaway, Anglo-Scandinavian ironwork from 16-22 Coppergate (London: The Archaeology of York Volume 17/6), fiche 3:A7-G14.
McDonnell J G 1997, ‘The slags and residues’, in D Cranstone, Derwentcote steel furnace: an industrial monument in County Durham (Lancaster), 93-102.
McDonnell J G in prep, Hamwic slag report.
Piaskowski J 1992, ‘Distinguishing between directly and indirectly smelted irons and steels’, Archaeomaterials 6, 169-73.
Pleiner R 1968, ‘Problem of direct steel production in early ferrous metallurgy’, Steel Times May, 312-8.
Rehder J E 1989, ‘Ancient carburisation of iron to steel’, Archaeomaterials 3(1), 27-37.
Rehder J E 1999, ‘The origin of the blast furnace’, Journal of the American Iron and Steel Society August, 23-27.
Rostoker W and Dvorak J 1990, ‘Wrought irons: distinguishing between processes’, Archaeomaterials 4, 153-66.
Scion Corporation 2000, Scion Image Analysis for PC V4.02 beta. http/www.scioncorp.com
Tylecote R F 1971, ‘The mechanism of the bloomery process in shaft furnaces’, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 209 (5), 342-63.
Tylecote R F and Gilmour B J 1986, The metallography of early ferrous edge tools and edged weapons (Oxford: BAR British Series 155).
Tylecote R F 1987, The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe (London).
Tylecote R F 1992, A History of Metallurgy, 2nd edn (London).
Weimer K 1993, Early British iron edged tools: a metallurgical study. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Oxford.
Angus H T 1976, Cast Iron (London).
Bronson B 1986, ‘The making and selling of Wootz: A crucible steel of India’, Archaeomaterials 1, 13-51.
Craddock P T 1995, Early Metal Mining and Production (Edinburgh).
Cuccini Tizzoni C 1999, ‘Ponte di Val Gabbia III: la forgia e i bassofuochi tra Tardoantico e alto Medioevo’, in C Cuccini Tizzoni and M Tizzoni (eds), La miniera perduta: Cinque anni di richerche archaeometallurgie nel territorio di Bienno (Breno), 93-117.
Fluzin P 1999, ‘Ponte di Val Gabbia III: i reperti metallici dalla forgia. Primi risultati dello studi metallografico’, in C Cuccini Tizzoni and M Tizzoni (eds), La miniera perduta: Cinque anni di richerche archaeometallurgie nel territorio di Bienno (Breno), 189-93.
Lang J, Craddock P T and Simpson St J 1998, ‘New evidence for early crucible steel’, Historical Metallurgy 32(1), 7-14.
Lowe T L 1989, ‘Solidification and the crucible processing of Deccani ancient steel’, in R Trevedi, J A Sekhar and J Mazumdar (eds), Principles of solidification and materials processing (New Delhi).
Mack I J 1998, Artefactual evidence for iron smithing from Hamwic, Saxon Southampton. Unpublished undergraduate dissertation, University of Bradford.
McDonnell J G 1986, The classification of early ironworking slags. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Aston.
McDonnell J G 1987a, Metallurgical analysis of six iron knives from Hamwih, Southampton. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 93/87.
McDonnell J G 1987b, Analysis of eight iron knives and four other tools from Hamwih, Southampton. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 137/87.
McDonnell J G, Fell V and Andrews P 1991, The typology of Saxon knives from Hamwih. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 96/91.
McDonnell J G 1992, ‘Metallography data’, in P Ottaway, Anglo-Scandinavian ironwork from 16-22 Coppergate (London: The Archaeology of York Volume 17/6), fiche 3:A7-G14.
McDonnell J G 1997, ‘The slags and residues’, in D Cranstone, Derwentcote steel furnace: an industrial monument in County Durham (Lancaster), 93-102.
McDonnell J G in prep, Hamwic slag report.
Piaskowski J 1992, ‘Distinguishing between directly and indirectly smelted irons and steels’, Archaeomaterials 6, 169-73.
Pleiner R 1968, ‘Problem of direct steel production in early ferrous metallurgy’, Steel Times May, 312-8.
Rehder J E 1989, ‘Ancient carburisation of iron to steel’, Archaeomaterials 3(1), 27-37.
Rehder J E 1999, ‘The origin of the blast furnace’, Journal of the American Iron and Steel Society August, 23-27.
Rostoker W and Dvorak J 1990, ‘Wrought irons: distinguishing between processes’, Archaeomaterials 4, 153-66.
Scion Corporation 2000, Scion Image Analysis for PC V4.02 beta. http/www.scioncorp.com
Tylecote R F 1971, ‘The mechanism of the bloomery process in shaft furnaces’, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 209 (5), 342-63.
Tylecote R F and Gilmour B J 1986, The metallography of early ferrous edge tools and edged weapons (Oxford: BAR British Series 155).
Tylecote R F 1987, The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe (London).
Tylecote R F 1992, A History of Metallurgy, 2nd edn (London).
Weimer K 1993, Early British iron edged tools: a metallurgical study. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Oxford.
How to Cite
Liquid steel in Anglo-Saxon England. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 34(2), 87-96. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/289
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How to Cite
Liquid steel in Anglo-Saxon England. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 34(2), 87-96. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/289