Crucible Steel – Bright Steel
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Published
Nov 13, 2021
Abstract
This paper describes the examination of two ferrous Islamic mirrors. One is of very pure iron but the other would appear to be of crucible steel, confirming contemporary descriptions that mirrors were of steel. The methods by which the steel could have been produced and the mirror fabricated are discussed. Recent work has shown that crucible steel was used for a wider range of artefacts than previously appreciated and its use for mirrors reflects another property of the metal that was utilised. Crucible steel as a bright material was certainly appreciated in 18th century Europe, when one of the first uses of crucible steel was as the source material for the imitation diamonds known as ‘brilliants’ that featured so much in costume jewellery of the period.
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References
Allan J 1979, Persian metal technology (Ithaca and London).
Allan J 2000a, ‘The trade in steel between the Indian subcontinent and Iran’, in J Allan and B Gilmour Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford), 113–22.
Allan J 2000b, Catalogue, in J Allan and B Gilmour Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford), 123–474.
Allan J and Gilmour B 2000, Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford).
Anasov P P 1841, ‘On the Bulat’, Gorny Journal [in Russian]. Reprinted 1843 in Annuaire du Journal des Mines en Russie, 192–236.
Anantharamu T R, Craddock P T, Nagesh Rao K, Murthy S R N and Wayman M L 1999, ‘Crucible steel of Gattihosahalli, Karnataka’, Historical Metallurgy 33(1), 13-35.
Barraclough K C 1984a, Steelmaking before Bessemer Vol I: Blister steel—The birth of an industry (London).
Barraclough K C 1984b, Steelmaking before Bessemer Vol II Crucible steel—The growth of technology (London).
Barraclough K C 1990, Steelmaking 1850–1900 (London). Becker V 1988, Fabulous fakes (London).
Berthelot M 1893, Collection des anciens alchemistes Grecs (Paris).
Bronson B 1986, ‘The making and selling of wootz, a crucible steel of India’, Archeomaterials 1(1), 13–51.
Bury S 1991, Jewellery 1789–1910 (Woodbridge).
Byrom J 1854, ‘The private journal and literary remains of John Byrom, vol 1, part 1’, Chetham Society 32.
Cahen C 1947–48, ‘Un traité d’armurie compose pour Saladin’, Bulletin d’Etudes Orientales 12, 103–63.
Clifford A 1971, Cut-steel and Berlin iron jewellery (Bath).
Craddock P T 1998, ‘New light on the production of crucible steel in Asia’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum of the Japan Institute of Metals 29, 41–65.
Craddock P T 2003, ‘Cast iron, fined iron, crucible steel: Liquid iron in the ancient world’, in P T Craddock and J Lang (eds), Mining and metal production through the ages (London), 231–57.
Craddock P T, La Niece S C and Hook D R 1998, ‘Brass in the medieval Islamic world’, in P T Craddock, (ed), 2,000 Years of zinc and brass, revised edn (London: BM Occ Pap 50), 73–114.
Craddock P T and Wayman M L 2000, ‘The development of European ferrous metallurgy’, in M Wayman (ed), The ferrous metallurgy of early clocks and watches: Studies in post medieval steel (London: BM Occ Pap 136), 13–28.
Craddock P T, Wayman M L, Wang H and Michaelson C 2003, ‘Chinese cast iron through twenty-five hundred years’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific research in the field of Asian art: Proceedings of the first Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery (London), 36–46.
Elmer C 1998, The Pingo family and medal-making in 18th century Britain (London).
Feurerbach A M 2002, Crucible steel in central Asia. Production, use and origins, unpublished PhD thesis, University of London.
Feuerbach A M, Griffiths D R and Merkel J F 2003, ‘Early Islamic crucible steel production at Merv, Turkmenistan’, in P T Craddock and J Lang (eds), Mining and metal production through the ages (London), 258–66.
George M D 1935, Catalogue of personal and political satires in the British Museum V, 1771–83 (London).
Gilmour B 2000, ‘The development of iron and steel in southern Asia’ and ‘Technological investigation of objects’, in Allan and Gilmour Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford), 41–79 and 475–516.
Al-Hasain A Y and Dunlop D R 1986, Islamic technology (Cambridge and Paris).
Hayward Gallery 1976, The arts of Islam (London).
La Niece S 2003, ‘Medieval Islamic metals technology’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific research in the field of Asian Art: Proceedings of the first Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery (London), 90–6.
Lang J, Craddock P T and Simpson St J 1998, ‘New evidence for early crucible steel’, Historical Metallurgy 32(1), 7–14.
Loring J 2001, Magnificent Tiffany silver (New York).
Manchester W 1969, The arms of Krupp, 1587–1968 (London).
Needham J 1974, Science and civilisation in China V, Chemistry and chemical technology 2, Spagyrical discovery and invention (Cambridge).
Norman A V B 1971, ‘An early eighteenth [century?] reference to cast steel’, Journal of the Arms and Armour Society 7, 7–8.
Quarrell W H and Mare M (trans and eds) 1934, London in 1710 from the travels of Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach (London).
Rawlings R D 1978, ‘The manufacture of cut steel buttons and studs’, Historical Metallurgy 12(2), 88–97.
Rees A 1802–20, CyclopÊdia or, a new universal dictionary of art and sciences. Originally issued in parts, a selection republished in five volumes by David and Charles, Newtown Abbot, 1972.
Rehren T and Papakhristu O 2000, ‘Cutting edge technology – The Ferghana process of medieval steel smelting’, Metalla 7(2), 55–69.
Ruska J (trans and ed) 1937, Al-Razis Buch Geheimnis der Geheimnisse, forming Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaft und der Medizin 5 and 6, 1–245.
Said H M (trans and ed) 1989, Al-Beruni’s book on mineralogy: The book most comprehensive in knowledge on precious stones (Karachi).
Scarsbrick D 1994, Jewellery in Britain 1066–1837 (Norwich).
Schweig B 1973, Mirrors (London).
Smith C S 1967, ‘The interpretation of microstrucrures of metallic artefacts’, in W J Young (ed), Application of science in the examination of works of art (Boston), 20–52.
Ward R 1993, Islamic metalwork (London).
Wayman M L (ed) 2000, The ferrous metallurgy of early clocks and watches: Studies in post medieval steel (London: BM Occ Pap 136).
Wayman M L and Wang H 2003, ‘Cast iron coins of Song dynasty China: a metallurgical study’, Historical Metallurgy 37(1), 6–24.
Wiet G 1958, ‘Inscriptions mobileres de l’Egypte musulmane’, Journal Asiatique 246, 243–7.
Wulff H E 1966, The traditional crafts of Persia (Cambridge, Ma).
Ziadeh N A 1964, Damascus under the Mamluks (Oklahoma).
Allan J 2000a, ‘The trade in steel between the Indian subcontinent and Iran’, in J Allan and B Gilmour Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford), 113–22.
Allan J 2000b, Catalogue, in J Allan and B Gilmour Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford), 123–474.
Allan J and Gilmour B 2000, Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford).
Anasov P P 1841, ‘On the Bulat’, Gorny Journal [in Russian]. Reprinted 1843 in Annuaire du Journal des Mines en Russie, 192–236.
Anantharamu T R, Craddock P T, Nagesh Rao K, Murthy S R N and Wayman M L 1999, ‘Crucible steel of Gattihosahalli, Karnataka’, Historical Metallurgy 33(1), 13-35.
Barraclough K C 1984a, Steelmaking before Bessemer Vol I: Blister steel—The birth of an industry (London).
Barraclough K C 1984b, Steelmaking before Bessemer Vol II Crucible steel—The growth of technology (London).
Barraclough K C 1990, Steelmaking 1850–1900 (London). Becker V 1988, Fabulous fakes (London).
Berthelot M 1893, Collection des anciens alchemistes Grecs (Paris).
Bronson B 1986, ‘The making and selling of wootz, a crucible steel of India’, Archeomaterials 1(1), 13–51.
Bury S 1991, Jewellery 1789–1910 (Woodbridge).
Byrom J 1854, ‘The private journal and literary remains of John Byrom, vol 1, part 1’, Chetham Society 32.
Cahen C 1947–48, ‘Un traité d’armurie compose pour Saladin’, Bulletin d’Etudes Orientales 12, 103–63.
Clifford A 1971, Cut-steel and Berlin iron jewellery (Bath).
Craddock P T 1998, ‘New light on the production of crucible steel in Asia’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum of the Japan Institute of Metals 29, 41–65.
Craddock P T 2003, ‘Cast iron, fined iron, crucible steel: Liquid iron in the ancient world’, in P T Craddock and J Lang (eds), Mining and metal production through the ages (London), 231–57.
Craddock P T, La Niece S C and Hook D R 1998, ‘Brass in the medieval Islamic world’, in P T Craddock, (ed), 2,000 Years of zinc and brass, revised edn (London: BM Occ Pap 50), 73–114.
Craddock P T and Wayman M L 2000, ‘The development of European ferrous metallurgy’, in M Wayman (ed), The ferrous metallurgy of early clocks and watches: Studies in post medieval steel (London: BM Occ Pap 136), 13–28.
Craddock P T, Wayman M L, Wang H and Michaelson C 2003, ‘Chinese cast iron through twenty-five hundred years’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific research in the field of Asian art: Proceedings of the first Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery (London), 36–46.
Elmer C 1998, The Pingo family and medal-making in 18th century Britain (London).
Feurerbach A M 2002, Crucible steel in central Asia. Production, use and origins, unpublished PhD thesis, University of London.
Feuerbach A M, Griffiths D R and Merkel J F 2003, ‘Early Islamic crucible steel production at Merv, Turkmenistan’, in P T Craddock and J Lang (eds), Mining and metal production through the ages (London), 258–66.
George M D 1935, Catalogue of personal and political satires in the British Museum V, 1771–83 (London).
Gilmour B 2000, ‘The development of iron and steel in southern Asia’ and ‘Technological investigation of objects’, in Allan and Gilmour Persian steel: The Tanavoli collection (Oxford), 41–79 and 475–516.
Al-Hasain A Y and Dunlop D R 1986, Islamic technology (Cambridge and Paris).
Hayward Gallery 1976, The arts of Islam (London).
La Niece S 2003, ‘Medieval Islamic metals technology’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific research in the field of Asian Art: Proceedings of the first Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery (London), 90–6.
Lang J, Craddock P T and Simpson St J 1998, ‘New evidence for early crucible steel’, Historical Metallurgy 32(1), 7–14.
Loring J 2001, Magnificent Tiffany silver (New York).
Manchester W 1969, The arms of Krupp, 1587–1968 (London).
Needham J 1974, Science and civilisation in China V, Chemistry and chemical technology 2, Spagyrical discovery and invention (Cambridge).
Norman A V B 1971, ‘An early eighteenth [century?] reference to cast steel’, Journal of the Arms and Armour Society 7, 7–8.
Quarrell W H and Mare M (trans and eds) 1934, London in 1710 from the travels of Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach (London).
Rawlings R D 1978, ‘The manufacture of cut steel buttons and studs’, Historical Metallurgy 12(2), 88–97.
Rees A 1802–20, CyclopÊdia or, a new universal dictionary of art and sciences. Originally issued in parts, a selection republished in five volumes by David and Charles, Newtown Abbot, 1972.
Rehren T and Papakhristu O 2000, ‘Cutting edge technology – The Ferghana process of medieval steel smelting’, Metalla 7(2), 55–69.
Ruska J (trans and ed) 1937, Al-Razis Buch Geheimnis der Geheimnisse, forming Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaft und der Medizin 5 and 6, 1–245.
Said H M (trans and ed) 1989, Al-Beruni’s book on mineralogy: The book most comprehensive in knowledge on precious stones (Karachi).
Scarsbrick D 1994, Jewellery in Britain 1066–1837 (Norwich).
Schweig B 1973, Mirrors (London).
Smith C S 1967, ‘The interpretation of microstrucrures of metallic artefacts’, in W J Young (ed), Application of science in the examination of works of art (Boston), 20–52.
Ward R 1993, Islamic metalwork (London).
Wayman M L (ed) 2000, The ferrous metallurgy of early clocks and watches: Studies in post medieval steel (London: BM Occ Pap 136).
Wayman M L and Wang H 2003, ‘Cast iron coins of Song dynasty China: a metallurgical study’, Historical Metallurgy 37(1), 6–24.
Wiet G 1958, ‘Inscriptions mobileres de l’Egypte musulmane’, Journal Asiatique 246, 243–7.
Wulff H E 1966, The traditional crafts of Persia (Cambridge, Ma).
Ziadeh N A 1964, Damascus under the Mamluks (Oklahoma).
How to Cite
Crucible Steel – Bright Steel. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 38(1), 35-46. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/252
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How to Cite
Crucible Steel – Bright Steel. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 38(1), 35-46. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/252