Caldarium? An antimony bronze used for medieval and post-medieval cast domestic vessels
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Published
Nov 13, 2021
Abstract
The archaeological evidence for medieval and post-medieval casting of large domestic vessels in England is reviewed. This consists of archaeological features, waste products and the finished artefacts. The distinctive nature of the alloy used (an antimony-rich leaded copper alloy) is discussed. It is argued that this alloy was a waste product from the extraction of silver from fahlerz ores.
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References
Algar D J 1973, ‘Wiltshire archaeological register for 1972, medieval, Salisbury’, Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine 68, 137.
Ambert P and Barger-Mathieu H 1991, ‘Les mines préhistoriques de Cabières (Hérault)’, in J-P Mohen and C Éluère (eds), Découverte du métal (Paris), 259–77.
Anund J, Bergquist U, Bäck M and Pettersson K 1992, ‘A medieval cauldron foundry—craftsmanship and craftsmen in Pantern, Uppsala’, in L Ersgård, M Holmstråm and K Lamm (eds), Rescue and research. Reflections of society in Sweden 700–1700 AD (Stockholm), 221–51.
Bachmann H-G 1982, The identification of slags from archaeological sites (London).
Bayley J 1986, Copper alloy waste from the Green, Northampton (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 6/1986).
Bayley J 1991, ‘Alloy nomenclature’, in G Egan and F Pritchard Medieval finds from excavations in London: 3. Dress accessories (London), 13–17.
Bayley J 1993, Assessment of metalworking debris from the Castle Mall excavations, Norwich, Norfolk (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 111/1993).
Blades N 1995, Copper alloys from English sites 499–1600 AD, An analytical study using ICP-AES. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London.
Blair C and Blair J 1991, ‘Copper alloys’, in J Blair and N Ramsey (eds), English medieval industries (London), 81–106.
Blair C, Blair J and Brownsword R 1986, ‘An Oxford Brasiers’ dispute of the 1390s, evidence for brass-making in medieval England’, Antiquaries Journal 66, 82–90.
Blaylock S R 1996, ‘Bell and cauldron founding in Exeter’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 72–82.
Blaylock S R 2000, ‘Excavations of an early post-medieval bronze foundry at Cowick Street’, Proceedings of the Devon Archaeological Society 58, 1–92.
Brownsword R and Pitt E H H 1981, ‘Medieval ‘bell-metal’ mortars— a misnomer’, Metallurgist and Materials Technologist 13, 184–5.
Brownsword R and Pitt E H H 1983, ‘A technical study of some medieval steelyard weights’, Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society 105, 83–8.
Budd P 1987, The examination of metallurgical debris and other technological material from Romsey, Hampshire (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 122/1987).
Butler R and Green C 2003, English bronze cooking vessels and their founders 1350–1830 (Honiton).
Cherry J 1978, ‘Post Medieval Britain in 1977’, Post Medieval Archaeology 11, 87–100.
Cherry, J 1987, ‘Cauldrons and skillets, metal and pottery in cooking’, in B Vyner and S Wrathmell (eds), Studies in medieval and later pottery in Wales presented to J M Lewis (Cardiff), 145–60.
Collis J 1978, Winchester excavations. Volume II. Excavations in the suburbs and western parts of the town (Winchester).
Craddock P T 1979, ‘Deliberate alloying in the Atlantic Bronze Age’, in M Ryan (ed), The origins of metallurgy in Atlantic Europe (Dublin), 369–85.
Craddock P T 1985, ‘Medieval copper alloy production and West African bronze analyses — Part 1’, Archaeometry 27, 17–41.
Craddock P T 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh). Craddock P T and Hook D R 1995, ‘Copper to Africa, evidence for the international trade in metal with Africa’, in D R M Gaimster and D R Hook (eds), Trade and discovery, The scientific study of artefacts from post-medieval Europe and beyond (London), 181–93.
Davies R M and Ovenden P J 1990, ‘Copper-alloy casting moulds from Trafalgar Street’, in M Biddle (ed), Object and economy in medieval Winchester. Winchester Studies, 7.2, Vol 1 (Oxford), 124–8.
Dennis M 1998, Copper alloy casting debris from the Baltic exchange, City of London (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 69/1998).
Donald M B 1955, Elizabethan copper. The history of the Company of Mines Royal 1568–1605 (London).
Doonan R 1997, Metallurgical debris from Norwich Greyfriars (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 114/1997).
Down A 1978, Chichester excavations 3 (Chichester).
Drescher H 1968, ‘Mittelalterliche Dreibeintˆpfe aus bronze’, Rotterdam Papers 1, 23–33.
Drescher H 1982–83, ‘Zu den Bronzenen Grapen des 12/16 Jahrhunderts aus Nordwestdeutschland’, in R Pohl-Weber (ed), Aus dem Alltag der mittelalterlichen Stadt (Bremen), 157–74.
Dungworth D 2001, Seventeenth century copper alloy working from Head Street, Colchester, Essex (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 53/2001).
Dungworth D 2002, Sixteenth and seventeenth century bronze casting Cowick Street, Exeter, Devon (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 19/2002).
Dungworth D and Maclean P 2002, Analysis of bell-casting debris from St Peter’s Church, Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 104/2002).
Evans A M 1987, An Introduction to ore geology, 2nd edn (Oxford).
Field R K 1965, ‘Worcestershire peasant buildings, household goods and farming equipment in the later Middle Ages’, Medieval Archaeology 9, 105–45.
Gläser M 1988, ‘Die mitellalterliche Bronzegeißerei auf dem Grunstück Briete Straße 26’, Lübecker Schriften zur Archäologie und Kulturgeschichte 17, 134–6.
Goodall A R 1981, ‘The medieval bronzesmith and his products’, in D W Crossley (ed), Medieval industry (London: CBA research report 40), 63–71.
Hawthorne J G and C S Smith 1979, Theophilus On Divers Arts (New York).
Herbert E W 1984, Red gold of Africa (Madison).
Hoover H C and Hoover L H 1950, Georgius Agricola. De re metallica (New York).
Howe E 2002, Roman defences and medieval industry. Excavations at Baltic House, City of London (London).
Ixer R A and Pattrick R A D 2003, ‘Copper-arsenic ores and Bronze Age mining and metallurgy with special reference to the British Isles’, in P T Craddock and J Lang (eds), Aspects of early mining and extractive metallurgy (London), 9–20.
Johnston A G, Bellamy B and Foster P J 2001, ‘Excavations at Southwick, Northamptonshire, 1996’, Northamptonshire Archaeology 29, 129–60.
Jones R H 1983, ‘Excavations at 68–72 Redcliff Street, 1982’, Bristol and Avon Archaeology 2, 37–9.
Kellenbenz H (ed) 1977, Schwerpunkte der Kupferproduktion und des Kupferhandels in Europa 1500–1650 (Cologne).
Lewis J M 1978, Medieval pottery and metal-ware in Wales (Cardiff).
London Museum 1940, Medieval catalogue (London).
MacCormick A. 1996, ‘Metalworking in medieval Nottingham 1100–1641’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 103–10.
Macnab N 2003, Anglo-Scandinavian, medieval and post-medieval urban occupation at 41–49 Walmgate, York, UK. The Archaeology of York Web Series No 1 (http//www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk/wgate/main/index.htm).
McDonnell J G 1987, Mould fragments from Hunter’s Walk, Chester, Cheshire (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 213/1987).
McDonnell J G and Dungworth D forthcoming, ‘Metal working evidence from Launceston Castle, Cornwall’, in A Saunders, Launceston Castle, Excavations 1961–1982 .
Mortimer C 1996a, Analysis of non-ferrous metalworking waste from Castle Mall, Norwich, Norfolk (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 75/1996).
Mortimer C 1996b, Re-examination of material from high-temperature processes from the Bedern foundry site, York (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 74/1996).
Nicholas M 2003, Post-medieval copper alloy casting debris from Whirligig Lane, Taunton, Somerset (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 34/2003).
Niederschlag E, Pernicka E, Seifert T and Bartelheim M 2003, ‘The determination of lead isotope ratios by multiple collector ICP-MS, a case study of Early Bronze Age artefacts and their possible relation with ore deposits of the Erzgebirge’, Archaeometry 45, 61–100.
Northover P and Shalev S 1993, ‘The metallurgy of the Nahal Mishmar hoard reconsidered’, Archaeometry 35, 35–47.
Paulin A, Spaic S, Heath D J and Tramuz-Orel N 1999, ‘Speiss from the late Bronze Age’, Erzmetall 52, 615–22.
Paulin A, Spaic S, Heath D J and Tramuz-Orel N 2000, ‘Analysis of late Bronze Age speiss’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 32, 29–41.
Pernicka E 1999, ‘Trace element fingerprinting of ancient copper, a guide to technology or provenance’, in S M M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity (Oxford), 163–71.
Percy J 1861, Metallurgy, Vol 1: Fuel, fire-clays, coper, zinc, brass (London).
Pike A W G, Cowell M R and Curteis J E 1996, ‘The use of antimony bronze in the Koban culture’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 11–16.
Pollard A M and Heron C 1996, Archaeological Chemistry (London).
Pollard A M, Thomas R G and Williams P A 1991, ‘Some experiments concerning the smelting of arsenical copper’, in P Budd, B Chapman, C Jackson, R Janaway and B Ottaway (eds),
Archaeological Sciences 1989 (Oxford), 169–74.
Ponsford M 1994, ‘Post Medieval Britain in 1993’, Post Medieval Archaeology 28, 119–83.
Rackham H 1952, Pliny Natural History (London).
Ranson D M 1977, An analysis of medieval moulds and casting debris from the Bedern, York. Unpublished MA dissertation, University of Bradfrod.
Richards J D 1993, The Bedern foundry (London: The Archaeology of York, Fascicule 10/3).
Sandham R and Willmore F R 1971, Metalwork, 2nd edn (London).
Shoesmith R 1982, Hereford City excavations. Volume 2. Excavations on and close to the defences (London: CBA Res Rep 46).
Shoesmith R 1985, Hereford City excavations. Volume 3. The finds (London: CBA Res Rep 56).
Shortt H de S 1949, ‘Bronze-founder’s moulds from Romsey’, Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club 17, 72–6.
Sisco A G and Smith C S 1951, Lazarus Ercker. Treatise on ores and assaying (Chicago).
Smith C S and Gnudi M T 1990, The Pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio (New York).
Smith C S and Hawthorne J G 1974, ‘Mappae Clavicula. A little key to the world of medieval techniques’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 64, 3–128.
Spufford P 1988, Money and its use in medieval Europe (Cambridge).
Suhonen M 1998, ‘A lead-bronze ingot from Mulli at Ihala in Raisio’, Fennoscandia 15, 71–5.
Tadmor M, Kedem D, Begemann F, Hauptmann D, Pernicka E and Schmidt-Strecker S 1995, ‘The Nahal Mishmar hoard from the Judean desert, technology, composition and provenance’, Atiqot 27, 95–148.
Taylor G 1996, ‘Medieval bronzefounding at Deansway, Worcester’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 111–15.
Tylecote R F, 1992 A History of Metallurgy, 2nd edn (London).
Tylecote R F, Ghaznavi H A and Boydell P J 1977, ‘Partitioning of trace elements between the ores, fluxes, slags and metal during the smelting of copper’, Journal of Archaeological Science 4, 305–33.
Vellev J 1998, ‘Eine mittelalterliche Bronzegießerwerkstatt in Odense—und etwas über Glocken und Grapen des Mittelalters’, Festschrift für Hans Drescher zu seinem 75. Geburtstag (Neumünster), 195–224.
Werner O 1976, ‘Westafrikanische Manilla’, Erzmetall 29, 447–53.
Werner O 1977, ‘Analysen mittelalterlicher Bronzen und Messinge I’, Archäologie und Naturwissenschaften 1, 144–220.
Webster L E and Cherry J 1973, ‘Medieval Britain in 1972’, Medieval Archaeology 17, 138–88.
Wilthew P 1983a, Examination of technological samples from Bayham Abbey, Sussex (London: Ancients Monument Laboratory Report 4048).
Wilthew P 1983b, Examination of mould fragments from Crook Street, Chester (London: Ancients Monument Laboratory Report 4029).
Wilthew P 1986, Examination of mould from Prudhoe Castle, Northumberland (London: Ancients Monument Laboratory Report 4818).
Yazawa A 1980, ‘Distribution of various elements between copper, matte and slag’, Erzmetall 33, 377–82.
Yazawa A and Azakami T 1969, ‘Thermodynamics of removing impurities during copper smelting’, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 8, 257–61.
Zwicker, U 1980, ‘Investigations on the extractive metallurgy of Cu/Sb/As ore and excavated smelting products from Norsun-Tepe (Keban) on the upper Euphrates (3500–2800BC)’, in W A Oddy (ed), Aspects of early metallurgy (London), 13–26.
Zwicker, U and Goudarzloo F 1979, ‘Investigation on the distribution of metallic elements in copper slag, copper matte and copper and comparison with samples from prehistoric smelting places’, in I Schollar (ed), Proceedings of the 18th international symposium on archaeometry and archaeological prospection (Bonn), 360–75.
Ambert P and Barger-Mathieu H 1991, ‘Les mines préhistoriques de Cabières (Hérault)’, in J-P Mohen and C Éluère (eds), Découverte du métal (Paris), 259–77.
Anund J, Bergquist U, Bäck M and Pettersson K 1992, ‘A medieval cauldron foundry—craftsmanship and craftsmen in Pantern, Uppsala’, in L Ersgård, M Holmstråm and K Lamm (eds), Rescue and research. Reflections of society in Sweden 700–1700 AD (Stockholm), 221–51.
Bachmann H-G 1982, The identification of slags from archaeological sites (London).
Bayley J 1986, Copper alloy waste from the Green, Northampton (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 6/1986).
Bayley J 1991, ‘Alloy nomenclature’, in G Egan and F Pritchard Medieval finds from excavations in London: 3. Dress accessories (London), 13–17.
Bayley J 1993, Assessment of metalworking debris from the Castle Mall excavations, Norwich, Norfolk (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 111/1993).
Blades N 1995, Copper alloys from English sites 499–1600 AD, An analytical study using ICP-AES. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London.
Blair C and Blair J 1991, ‘Copper alloys’, in J Blair and N Ramsey (eds), English medieval industries (London), 81–106.
Blair C, Blair J and Brownsword R 1986, ‘An Oxford Brasiers’ dispute of the 1390s, evidence for brass-making in medieval England’, Antiquaries Journal 66, 82–90.
Blaylock S R 1996, ‘Bell and cauldron founding in Exeter’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 72–82.
Blaylock S R 2000, ‘Excavations of an early post-medieval bronze foundry at Cowick Street’, Proceedings of the Devon Archaeological Society 58, 1–92.
Brownsword R and Pitt E H H 1981, ‘Medieval ‘bell-metal’ mortars— a misnomer’, Metallurgist and Materials Technologist 13, 184–5.
Brownsword R and Pitt E H H 1983, ‘A technical study of some medieval steelyard weights’, Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society 105, 83–8.
Budd P 1987, The examination of metallurgical debris and other technological material from Romsey, Hampshire (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 122/1987).
Butler R and Green C 2003, English bronze cooking vessels and their founders 1350–1830 (Honiton).
Cherry J 1978, ‘Post Medieval Britain in 1977’, Post Medieval Archaeology 11, 87–100.
Cherry, J 1987, ‘Cauldrons and skillets, metal and pottery in cooking’, in B Vyner and S Wrathmell (eds), Studies in medieval and later pottery in Wales presented to J M Lewis (Cardiff), 145–60.
Collis J 1978, Winchester excavations. Volume II. Excavations in the suburbs and western parts of the town (Winchester).
Craddock P T 1979, ‘Deliberate alloying in the Atlantic Bronze Age’, in M Ryan (ed), The origins of metallurgy in Atlantic Europe (Dublin), 369–85.
Craddock P T 1985, ‘Medieval copper alloy production and West African bronze analyses — Part 1’, Archaeometry 27, 17–41.
Craddock P T 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh). Craddock P T and Hook D R 1995, ‘Copper to Africa, evidence for the international trade in metal with Africa’, in D R M Gaimster and D R Hook (eds), Trade and discovery, The scientific study of artefacts from post-medieval Europe and beyond (London), 181–93.
Davies R M and Ovenden P J 1990, ‘Copper-alloy casting moulds from Trafalgar Street’, in M Biddle (ed), Object and economy in medieval Winchester. Winchester Studies, 7.2, Vol 1 (Oxford), 124–8.
Dennis M 1998, Copper alloy casting debris from the Baltic exchange, City of London (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 69/1998).
Donald M B 1955, Elizabethan copper. The history of the Company of Mines Royal 1568–1605 (London).
Doonan R 1997, Metallurgical debris from Norwich Greyfriars (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 114/1997).
Down A 1978, Chichester excavations 3 (Chichester).
Drescher H 1968, ‘Mittelalterliche Dreibeintˆpfe aus bronze’, Rotterdam Papers 1, 23–33.
Drescher H 1982–83, ‘Zu den Bronzenen Grapen des 12/16 Jahrhunderts aus Nordwestdeutschland’, in R Pohl-Weber (ed), Aus dem Alltag der mittelalterlichen Stadt (Bremen), 157–74.
Dungworth D 2001, Seventeenth century copper alloy working from Head Street, Colchester, Essex (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 53/2001).
Dungworth D 2002, Sixteenth and seventeenth century bronze casting Cowick Street, Exeter, Devon (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 19/2002).
Dungworth D and Maclean P 2002, Analysis of bell-casting debris from St Peter’s Church, Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 104/2002).
Evans A M 1987, An Introduction to ore geology, 2nd edn (Oxford).
Field R K 1965, ‘Worcestershire peasant buildings, household goods and farming equipment in the later Middle Ages’, Medieval Archaeology 9, 105–45.
Gläser M 1988, ‘Die mitellalterliche Bronzegeißerei auf dem Grunstück Briete Straße 26’, Lübecker Schriften zur Archäologie und Kulturgeschichte 17, 134–6.
Goodall A R 1981, ‘The medieval bronzesmith and his products’, in D W Crossley (ed), Medieval industry (London: CBA research report 40), 63–71.
Hawthorne J G and C S Smith 1979, Theophilus On Divers Arts (New York).
Herbert E W 1984, Red gold of Africa (Madison).
Hoover H C and Hoover L H 1950, Georgius Agricola. De re metallica (New York).
Howe E 2002, Roman defences and medieval industry. Excavations at Baltic House, City of London (London).
Ixer R A and Pattrick R A D 2003, ‘Copper-arsenic ores and Bronze Age mining and metallurgy with special reference to the British Isles’, in P T Craddock and J Lang (eds), Aspects of early mining and extractive metallurgy (London), 9–20.
Johnston A G, Bellamy B and Foster P J 2001, ‘Excavations at Southwick, Northamptonshire, 1996’, Northamptonshire Archaeology 29, 129–60.
Jones R H 1983, ‘Excavations at 68–72 Redcliff Street, 1982’, Bristol and Avon Archaeology 2, 37–9.
Kellenbenz H (ed) 1977, Schwerpunkte der Kupferproduktion und des Kupferhandels in Europa 1500–1650 (Cologne).
Lewis J M 1978, Medieval pottery and metal-ware in Wales (Cardiff).
London Museum 1940, Medieval catalogue (London).
MacCormick A. 1996, ‘Metalworking in medieval Nottingham 1100–1641’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 103–10.
Macnab N 2003, Anglo-Scandinavian, medieval and post-medieval urban occupation at 41–49 Walmgate, York, UK. The Archaeology of York Web Series No 1 (http//www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk/wgate/main/index.htm).
McDonnell J G 1987, Mould fragments from Hunter’s Walk, Chester, Cheshire (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 213/1987).
McDonnell J G and Dungworth D forthcoming, ‘Metal working evidence from Launceston Castle, Cornwall’, in A Saunders, Launceston Castle, Excavations 1961–1982 .
Mortimer C 1996a, Analysis of non-ferrous metalworking waste from Castle Mall, Norwich, Norfolk (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 75/1996).
Mortimer C 1996b, Re-examination of material from high-temperature processes from the Bedern foundry site, York (London: Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 74/1996).
Nicholas M 2003, Post-medieval copper alloy casting debris from Whirligig Lane, Taunton, Somerset (London: Centre for Archaeology Report 34/2003).
Niederschlag E, Pernicka E, Seifert T and Bartelheim M 2003, ‘The determination of lead isotope ratios by multiple collector ICP-MS, a case study of Early Bronze Age artefacts and their possible relation with ore deposits of the Erzgebirge’, Archaeometry 45, 61–100.
Northover P and Shalev S 1993, ‘The metallurgy of the Nahal Mishmar hoard reconsidered’, Archaeometry 35, 35–47.
Paulin A, Spaic S, Heath D J and Tramuz-Orel N 1999, ‘Speiss from the late Bronze Age’, Erzmetall 52, 615–22.
Paulin A, Spaic S, Heath D J and Tramuz-Orel N 2000, ‘Analysis of late Bronze Age speiss’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 32, 29–41.
Pernicka E 1999, ‘Trace element fingerprinting of ancient copper, a guide to technology or provenance’, in S M M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity (Oxford), 163–71.
Percy J 1861, Metallurgy, Vol 1: Fuel, fire-clays, coper, zinc, brass (London).
Pike A W G, Cowell M R and Curteis J E 1996, ‘The use of antimony bronze in the Koban culture’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 11–16.
Pollard A M and Heron C 1996, Archaeological Chemistry (London).
Pollard A M, Thomas R G and Williams P A 1991, ‘Some experiments concerning the smelting of arsenical copper’, in P Budd, B Chapman, C Jackson, R Janaway and B Ottaway (eds),
Archaeological Sciences 1989 (Oxford), 169–74.
Ponsford M 1994, ‘Post Medieval Britain in 1993’, Post Medieval Archaeology 28, 119–83.
Rackham H 1952, Pliny Natural History (London).
Ranson D M 1977, An analysis of medieval moulds and casting debris from the Bedern, York. Unpublished MA dissertation, University of Bradfrod.
Richards J D 1993, The Bedern foundry (London: The Archaeology of York, Fascicule 10/3).
Sandham R and Willmore F R 1971, Metalwork, 2nd edn (London).
Shoesmith R 1982, Hereford City excavations. Volume 2. Excavations on and close to the defences (London: CBA Res Rep 46).
Shoesmith R 1985, Hereford City excavations. Volume 3. The finds (London: CBA Res Rep 56).
Shortt H de S 1949, ‘Bronze-founder’s moulds from Romsey’, Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club 17, 72–6.
Sisco A G and Smith C S 1951, Lazarus Ercker. Treatise on ores and assaying (Chicago).
Smith C S and Gnudi M T 1990, The Pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio (New York).
Smith C S and Hawthorne J G 1974, ‘Mappae Clavicula. A little key to the world of medieval techniques’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 64, 3–128.
Spufford P 1988, Money and its use in medieval Europe (Cambridge).
Suhonen M 1998, ‘A lead-bronze ingot from Mulli at Ihala in Raisio’, Fennoscandia 15, 71–5.
Tadmor M, Kedem D, Begemann F, Hauptmann D, Pernicka E and Schmidt-Strecker S 1995, ‘The Nahal Mishmar hoard from the Judean desert, technology, composition and provenance’, Atiqot 27, 95–148.
Taylor G 1996, ‘Medieval bronzefounding at Deansway, Worcester’, Historical Metallurgy 30, 111–15.
Tylecote R F, 1992 A History of Metallurgy, 2nd edn (London).
Tylecote R F, Ghaznavi H A and Boydell P J 1977, ‘Partitioning of trace elements between the ores, fluxes, slags and metal during the smelting of copper’, Journal of Archaeological Science 4, 305–33.
Vellev J 1998, ‘Eine mittelalterliche Bronzegießerwerkstatt in Odense—und etwas über Glocken und Grapen des Mittelalters’, Festschrift für Hans Drescher zu seinem 75. Geburtstag (Neumünster), 195–224.
Werner O 1976, ‘Westafrikanische Manilla’, Erzmetall 29, 447–53.
Werner O 1977, ‘Analysen mittelalterlicher Bronzen und Messinge I’, Archäologie und Naturwissenschaften 1, 144–220.
Webster L E and Cherry J 1973, ‘Medieval Britain in 1972’, Medieval Archaeology 17, 138–88.
Wilthew P 1983a, Examination of technological samples from Bayham Abbey, Sussex (London: Ancients Monument Laboratory Report 4048).
Wilthew P 1983b, Examination of mould fragments from Crook Street, Chester (London: Ancients Monument Laboratory Report 4029).
Wilthew P 1986, Examination of mould from Prudhoe Castle, Northumberland (London: Ancients Monument Laboratory Report 4818).
Yazawa A 1980, ‘Distribution of various elements between copper, matte and slag’, Erzmetall 33, 377–82.
Yazawa A and Azakami T 1969, ‘Thermodynamics of removing impurities during copper smelting’, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 8, 257–61.
Zwicker, U 1980, ‘Investigations on the extractive metallurgy of Cu/Sb/As ore and excavated smelting products from Norsun-Tepe (Keban) on the upper Euphrates (3500–2800BC)’, in W A Oddy (ed), Aspects of early metallurgy (London), 13–26.
Zwicker, U and Goudarzloo F 1979, ‘Investigation on the distribution of metallic elements in copper slag, copper matte and copper and comparison with samples from prehistoric smelting places’, in I Schollar (ed), Proceedings of the 18th international symposium on archaeometry and archaeological prospection (Bonn), 360–75.
How to Cite
Caldarium? An antimony bronze used for medieval and post-medieval cast domestic vessels. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 38(1), 24-34. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/251
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How to Cite
Caldarium? An antimony bronze used for medieval and post-medieval cast domestic vessels. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 38(1), 24-34. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/251