The metallurgy of early Chinese wrought-iron and steel objects from the British Museum
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November 12, 2021
Abstract
The collections of the Department of Asia, British Museum contain a number of early Chinese objects made of iron or steel. A selection of these, including crossbow bolts, stirrups, edge tools and miscellaneous objects, have been analysed metallographically. The results illustrate various ferrous metallurgical technologies in use between the late 1st millennium BC and the mid 2nd millennium AD. A number of the objects are conventional wrought irons made by the bloomery process or the fi ning of blast furnace iron; some of these had been carburised to produce steel with a wide range of carbon contents. Other objects had been produced as cast iron, and then subjected to solid-state decarburisation to produce low-carbon iron or steel. Piled, forge-welded structures were common. Composite crossbow bolts had been made by the casting-on of bronze heads onto iron shafts.
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References
Bronson B 1999, ‘The transition to iron in ancient China’, in V C Pigott (ed), The archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World (Philadelphia: MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology 16), 177–193.
Chase W T 1991, Ancient Chinese bronze art: casting the precious sacral vessel (New York).
Chen Jianli, Han Rubin and Wan Xin 2003, ‘The manufacturing technique of ferrous artefacts excavated from Xianbei gravesite at Lamadong village of Liaoning province’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific Research in the field of Asian Art: Proceedings of the First Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery of Art (London), 70–78.
Craddock P T, Wayman M L, Wang H and Michaelson C 2003, ‘Chinese cast iron through twenty-five hundred years’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific research in the field of Asian art: Proceedings of the first Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery of Art (London) 36–46.
Gettens R J 1965, ‘Joining methods in the fabrication of ancient bronze ceremonial vessels’, in P Rathbone and W J Young (eds), Application of science in examination of works of art (Boston).
Han Rubin 1998, ‘Iron and steel making and its features in ancient China’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 30, 23–37.
Hua Jue-ming, Yang Geng and Liu Enzhu 1960, ‘Preliminary report on metallographic examination of some Warring States and Han period iron artifacts’, Kaogu xuebai [Acta Archaeological Sinica] 1960.1, 73-88 (in Chinese); trans Wagner 1993, Translation 6.18, Fig 6.47.
Hua Jue-ming 1983, ‘The mass production of iron castings in ancient China’, Scientifi c American 248, 107–114.
Needham J 1958, The development of iron and steel technology in China (London).
Rawson J 1993, ‘Chinese iron technology: the workshop and the factory’, paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Los Angeles, March 1993.
Rostoker W and Bronson B 1990, Pre-industrial iron: its technology and ethnology (Philadelphia: Archeomaterials Monograph 1).
Rostoker W, Bronson B, Dvorak J and Shen G 1983, ‘Casting farm implements, comparable tools and hardware in ancient China’, World Archaeology 15(2), 196–210.
Stein M A 1907, Ancient Khotan: detailed report of archaeological excavations in Chinese Turkestan (Oxford, reprinted New Delhi 1981).
Stein M A 1921, Serindia: detailed report of explorations in central Asia and westernmost China carried out and described under the orders of HM Indian Government (Oxford, reprinted Delhi 1980).
Stewart J W, Charles J A and Wallach E R 2000, ‘Iron-phosphorus-carbon system: Part 3 – Metallography of low carbon iron-phosphorus alloys’, Materials Science and Technology 16, 291–303.
Wagner D B 1989, Toward the reconstruction of ancient Chinese techniques for the production of malleable cast iron (Copenhagen: East Asian Institute Occasional Papers 4).
Wagner D B 1993, Iron and steel in ancient China (Leiden).
Wagner D B 1999, ‘The earliest use of iron in China’, in S M M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in ant iquity (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports Int Ser 792), 1–9.
Wagner D B forthcoming, Science and civilization in China, 36 (c): Ferrous metallurgy, unpublished draft dated 30 March 2005.
Wayman M L, Lang J and Michaelson C 2004, ‘The metallurgy of Chinese cast iron statuary’, Historical Metallurgy 38, 10–23.
Wayman M and Michaelson C, in press, ‘Early Chinese ferrous swords from the British Museum collections’, in Proceedings of the conference Metallurgy- a touchstone for cross-cultural interaction, British Museum, London, April 2005.
Wayman M and Wang H 2003, ‘Cast iron coins of Song Dynasty China: a metallurgical study’, Historical Metallurgy 37, 6–24.
Chase W T 1991, Ancient Chinese bronze art: casting the precious sacral vessel (New York).
Chen Jianli, Han Rubin and Wan Xin 2003, ‘The manufacturing technique of ferrous artefacts excavated from Xianbei gravesite at Lamadong village of Liaoning province’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific Research in the field of Asian Art: Proceedings of the First Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery of Art (London), 70–78.
Craddock P T, Wayman M L, Wang H and Michaelson C 2003, ‘Chinese cast iron through twenty-five hundred years’, in P Jett (ed), Scientific research in the field of Asian art: Proceedings of the first Forbes Symposium at the Freer Gallery of Art (London) 36–46.
Gettens R J 1965, ‘Joining methods in the fabrication of ancient bronze ceremonial vessels’, in P Rathbone and W J Young (eds), Application of science in examination of works of art (Boston).
Han Rubin 1998, ‘Iron and steel making and its features in ancient China’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 30, 23–37.
Hua Jue-ming, Yang Geng and Liu Enzhu 1960, ‘Preliminary report on metallographic examination of some Warring States and Han period iron artifacts’, Kaogu xuebai [Acta Archaeological Sinica] 1960.1, 73-88 (in Chinese); trans Wagner 1993, Translation 6.18, Fig 6.47.
Hua Jue-ming 1983, ‘The mass production of iron castings in ancient China’, Scientifi c American 248, 107–114.
Needham J 1958, The development of iron and steel technology in China (London).
Rawson J 1993, ‘Chinese iron technology: the workshop and the factory’, paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Los Angeles, March 1993.
Rostoker W and Bronson B 1990, Pre-industrial iron: its technology and ethnology (Philadelphia: Archeomaterials Monograph 1).
Rostoker W, Bronson B, Dvorak J and Shen G 1983, ‘Casting farm implements, comparable tools and hardware in ancient China’, World Archaeology 15(2), 196–210.
Stein M A 1907, Ancient Khotan: detailed report of archaeological excavations in Chinese Turkestan (Oxford, reprinted New Delhi 1981).
Stein M A 1921, Serindia: detailed report of explorations in central Asia and westernmost China carried out and described under the orders of HM Indian Government (Oxford, reprinted Delhi 1980).
Stewart J W, Charles J A and Wallach E R 2000, ‘Iron-phosphorus-carbon system: Part 3 – Metallography of low carbon iron-phosphorus alloys’, Materials Science and Technology 16, 291–303.
Wagner D B 1989, Toward the reconstruction of ancient Chinese techniques for the production of malleable cast iron (Copenhagen: East Asian Institute Occasional Papers 4).
Wagner D B 1993, Iron and steel in ancient China (Leiden).
Wagner D B 1999, ‘The earliest use of iron in China’, in S M M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in ant iquity (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports Int Ser 792), 1–9.
Wagner D B forthcoming, Science and civilization in China, 36 (c): Ferrous metallurgy, unpublished draft dated 30 March 2005.
Wayman M L, Lang J and Michaelson C 2004, ‘The metallurgy of Chinese cast iron statuary’, Historical Metallurgy 38, 10–23.
Wayman M and Michaelson C, in press, ‘Early Chinese ferrous swords from the British Museum collections’, in Proceedings of the conference Metallurgy- a touchstone for cross-cultural interaction, British Museum, London, April 2005.
Wayman M and Wang H 2003, ‘Cast iron coins of Song Dynasty China: a metallurgical study’, Historical Metallurgy 37, 6–24.
How to Cite
Wayman, M., & Michaelson, C. (2021). The metallurgy of early Chinese wrought-iron and steel objects from the British Museum. Historical Metallurgy, 40(2), 95-104. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/224
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