The potential of metallography in investigations of early objects made of copper and copper-based alloys
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Published
Nov 11, 2021
Abstract
Investigation of early copper and copper-based alloys by optical and electron metallography enables us to answer many questions. These include revealing the modes of metalworking developed in different cultures and manufacturing centres; establishing relationships between the metalworking technology and the raw material used; analysing the raw material from the standpoint of the metallurgical processes used to produce it; investigating the structure and organization of production etc. Among the problems studied is that concerning patterns in the development of the earliest metallurgical knowledge. Over 500 microstructural analyses are discussed in this paper. They form the basis for considering manufacturing dynamics in the Near East and SE Europe: how increasingly complicated patterns can be observed from the Eneolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The interaction of primary and secondary centres of metal production is considered, based on the example of the Maikop culture of the North Caucasus.
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Keywords
References
Andreeva M V 1977, ‘Kvoprosu o yuzhnykh sviaziakh maikopskoi kultury’, Sovetskaya arkheologhia 1, 39–56.
Avilova L I 1996, ‘Metall Mesopotamii v rannem i srednem bronzovom veke’, Vestnik drevnei istorii 4(219), 68–81.
Bekker M and Klemm K 1979, Spravochnik po metallograficheskomu travleniyu (Moscow).
Bochkariov V S and Rezepkin A D 1980, ‘Raboty kubanskoi ekspeditsii’, in B A Rybakov (ed), Arkheologhitcheskiye otkrytiya 1979 goda (Moscow), 97–98.
Braidwood R J and Braidwood L S 1950, Excavations in the Plain of Antioch, I. The earlier Assemblages phases, A-J (Chicago: The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications 61).
Braidwood R J, Burke J B and Nachtrieb N H 1951, ‘Ancient Syrian coppers and bronzes’, Journal of Chemical Education 28(2), 87–96.
Buchholz H G 1967, ‘Analysen prähistoricher Metallfunde aus Zypern und den Nachbarländern’, Berliner Jahrbuch für Vor- und Frühgeschichte 7, 232–256.
Budd P 1991, ‘Metallographic investigation of eneolithic arsenical copper artefacts from Mondsee, Austria’, Historical Metallurgy 25(2), 99–108.
Chernykh E N 1966, Istoria drevneishei metallurghii Vostochnoi Yevropy (Moscow).
Childe V G 1944, ‘Archaeological ages and technological stages’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 74(1–2), 7–24.
Coghlan H H 1951, Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Old World (Oxford: Occasional Papers on Technology 4).
Coghlan H H 1975, Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Old World (Oxford: Occasional Papers on Technology 4, 2nd edn).
Contenau G and Ghirshman R 1935, Fouilles de Tepe-Guyan (Paris).
Craddock P T 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh).
Forbes R J 1971, Studies in ancient technology Vol 8 (Leiden).
France-Lanord A and Contenson H de 1973, ‘Une pendeloque en cuivre natif de Ramad’, Palêorient 1, 107–115.
Frangipane M 1985 ‘Early development of metallurgy in the Near East’, in M Liverani, A Palmieri and R Peroni (eds), Studi di paletnologia in onore di Salvatore in Puglisi (Roma), 215–229.
Gallay A and Lahouze M 1976 ‘Pour une préhistoire de la métallurgie (Europe, Proche-Orient)’, Archives Suisses d’Antropologie Générale 40, 137–200.
Garstang J 1953, Prehistoric Mersin (Oxford).
Ghirshman R 1938, Fouilles de Sialk, II (Paris).
Hall E T 1961, ‘Surface-enrichment of buried metals’, Archaeometry 4, 62–67.
Hauptmann A and Palmieri A 2000, ‘Metal production in the Eastern Mediterranean at the transition of the 4th/3rd millennium: case studies from Arslantepe’, in Ü Yalçin (ed), Anatolien Metal I (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 13), 75–82.
Hauptmann A, Smitt-Stecker S, Begeman F and Palmieri A 2002, ‘Chemical composition and lead isotopes of metal objects from the “Royal” tomb and other related finds at Arslantepe, Eastern Anatolia’, Palêorient 28(2), 43–70.
Hauptmann A and Weisgerber G 1985, ‘Vom Kupfer zur Bronze zum frühesten Berg- und Hüttenwesen’, in A Hauptmann (ed), Archaeologische Bronzen, Antike Kunst, Moderne Technik
(Berlin), 16–35.
Heskel D 1981, ‘The development of pyrotechnology in Iran during the fourth and third millennia BC’, unpublished PhD thesis, Harvard University.
Heskel D, Lamberg-Karlovsky C 1980, ‘An alternative sequence for the development of metallurgy: Tepe Yahya, Iran’, in T A Wertime and J D Muhly (eds), The coming of the age of iron (New Haven), 229–265.
Korenevsky S N 2004, Drevneishiye zemledeltsy I skotovody Predkavkaziya (Moscow).
La Niece S 1990, ‘Silver plating on copper, bronze and brass’, Antiquaries Journal 70(1), 102–114.
Maddin R, Muhly J D and Stech T 1999, ‘Early metalworking at Çayönü’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka and Ü Jalçin (eds), The beginning of metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9),
37–44.
Mallowan M E L and Rose J C 1935, ‘Excavations at Tell Arpachiyah 1933’, Iraq 2, 1–178.
McKerrell H and Tylecote R F 1972, ‘The working of copper-arsenic alloys’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 38, 209–218.
Markovin V I and Munchaev R M 2003, Severnyi Kavkaz. Ocherki drevnei I srednevekovoi istorii i kultury (Moscow).
Meeks N 1993, ‘Surface characterization of tinned bronze, high tin bronze, tinned iron and arsenical bronzes’, in S La Niece and P Craddock (eds), Metal plating and patination (Oxford),
266–273.
Mikhalevich G P and Saiko E V 1975, ‘Tekhnicheskiye kharakteristiki i priyomy obrabotki metallov po traktatu 1301 goda Kashani’, Soobsheniya Vsesoyuznoi nauchno-issledovatelskoi laboratorii konservatsii i restavratsii 30, 29–57.
Moorey P R S 1999, Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries. The archaeological evidence (Oxford).
Muhly J D 1980, ‘The bronze age setting’, in T A Wertime and J D Muhly (eds), The coming of the age of iron (New Haven), 26–67.
Muhly J D, Wheeler T S and Maddin R 1980, ‘New research on ancient copper and copper alloys’ in E A Slater and J D Tate (eds), Proceedings of the 16th international symposium on archaeometry and archaeological prospection (Edinburgh), 248–267.
Müller-Karpe M 1990, ‘Metallgefässe des dritten Jahrtausends in Mesopotamien’, Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 20, 161–176.
Müller-Karpe M 1993, Metallgefässe in Iraq I (von den Anfängen bis zur Akkad-Zeit) (Stuttgart: Prähistorische Bronzefunde 2(14).
Munchaev R M 1994, ‘Maikopskaia kultura’, in K K Kushnariova and V I Markovin (eds), Epokha bronzy Kavkaza I Srednei Azii. Ranniaya I sredniaya bronza Kavkaza (Moscow), 158–255.
Munchaev R M and Merpert N Y 1981, Rannezemledelcheskiye poseleniya Severnoi Mesopotamii (Moscow).
Neuninger H, Pittioni R and Siegel M 1964, ‘Frühkeramikzeitliche Kupfergewinnung in Anatolien’, Archaeologia Austriaca 35, 98–110.
Northover J P 1989, ‘Properties and use of arsenic-copper alloys’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka and G A Wagner (eds), Old World Archaeometallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 7), 111–118.
Palmieri A 1981, ‘Excavations at Arslantepe (Malatya)’, Anatolian Studies 31, 101–119.
Palmieri A, Hauptmann A and Hess K 1998, ‘Les objets en métal du tombeau monumental d’Arslantepe de 3000 av. J.-C. (Malatya, Turquie)’, Revue d’Archéométrie 22, 39–43.
Pernicka E 1993, ‘Analytisch-chemische Untersuchungen an metallfunden von Uruk-Warka und Kiš’, in M Müller-Karpe, Metallgefässe in Iraq 1 (Stuttgart: Prähistorische Bronzefunde 2(14)), 312–316.
Pernicka E 1999, ‘Trace elements fingerprinting of ancient copper: a guide to technology or provenance?’, in S M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity (Oxford: BAR International Series 792), 163–171.
Pigott V C 1999, ‘A heartland of metallurgy. Neolithic/chalcolithic metallurgical origins on the Iranian Plateau’ in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren and Ü Yalçin (eds), The Beginning of
Metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9), 107–120.
Ravich I G 1999, ‘Metallograficheskoye issledovaniye serebrianykh monet iz kladov Srednei Azii epokhi Karakhanidov (XI-XII vv.)’, Khudozhestvennoye naslediye 17, 96–100.
Ravich I G, Ryndina N V and Shemakhanskaya M S 2001, ‘Osobennosti formirovaniya serebristykh poverkhnostei na arkheologhicheskikh obyektakh iz metalla’, in V V Zverev (ed), Issledovaniya v restavratsii (Moscow), 126–129.
Ravich I G and Shemakhanskaya M S 2005, ‘Homogenization and corrosion of copper-arsenic alloys’, in S La Niece, D Hook and N Meeks (eds), Metallurgy: a touchstone for cross-cultural interaction. Abstracts of international archaeometallurgy conference (London), 129.
Renfrew C 1972, Before civilisation: the radiocarbon revolution and prehistoric Europe (New York).
Rezepkin A D 1987, ‘Interpretatsia rospisi iz grobnitsy maikopskoi kultury bliz stanitsy Novosvobodnoi’, Kratkie soobshcheniya Instituta arkheologhii 192, 26–33.
Rezepkin A D 1991, ‘Kurgan 31 moghilnika Klady. Problemy ghenezisa I khronologhii maikopskoi kultury’ in V M Masson (ed), Drevniye kultury Prikubanya (Leningrad), 167–197.
Rovira S and Games P 1993, Las primeras etapas metallúrgicas en la península Ibérica. Estudios metalograficos (Madrid).
Ryndina N V 1985, ‘Pro vykorystannia samorodnoi midi v naidavnishiy metalurghii Blizkogo Skhodu’, Arkheologhiya 51, 11–21.
Ryndina N V 1992, ‘O periodizatsii drevneishego metalloobrabatyvayushchego proizvodstva Yugo-Vostochnoi Yevropy (neolit-eneolit)’ Vestnik Moskovskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, seriya ‘Istoria’ 6, 62–75.
Ryndina N V 1998, Drevneisheie metalloobrabatyvayushcheie proizvodstvo Yugo-Vostochnoi Yevropy (istoki I razvitiye v neoliteeneolite) (Moscow).
Ryndina N V, Kolosova G V and Indenbaum G V 1999, ‘Copper production from polymetallic sulphide ores of the north-eastern Balkan Eneolithic cultures’, Journal of Archaeological Science
26, 1059–1068.
Ryndina N V 2000, ‘O liteinykh formakh epokhi eneolita Severo-Vostochnykh Balkan’, Rossiiskaya arkheologhia 2, 5–14.
Ryndina N V 2004, ‘O zakonomernostiakh razvitiya drevneishei mednoi metallurghii Blizhnego Vostoka i Yugo-Vostochnoi
Yevropy (po dannym metallograficheskikh issledovaniy)’, Dobruja 21, 69–103.
Ryndina N V and Degtyareva A D 2002, Eneolit i bronzovyi vek (Moscow).
Ryndina N V and Konkova L V 1982, ‘O proiskhozhdenii bolshikh usatovskikh kinzhalov’, Sovetskaya arkheologhia 2, 30–42.
Ryndina N V and Yakhontova L K 1985, ‘Drevneisheie mednoie izdelie Severnoi Mesopotamii’, Sovetskaya arkheologhia 2, 155–165.
Shalev S 1988, ‘Redating the ‘Philistine sword’ at the British Museum: a case study in typology and technology’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 7, 303–311.
Shalev S, Goren J, Levy T and Northover J P 1992, ‘A chalcolithic mace head from the Negev Israel: technological aspects and culture implication’, Archaeometry 34(1), 63–71.
Shalev S 1995, ‘Metals in ancient Israel: archaeological interpretation of chemical analyses’, Israel Journal of Chemistry 35(2), 109–116.
Smith C S 1968, ‘Metallographic study of early artifacts made from native copper’, Actes du 9e Congrès International d’Histoire des Sciences Vol 4 (Warsaw), 237–252.
Smith C S 1973, ‘An examination of the arsenic-rich coating on a bronze bull from Horo Tepe’, in W J Young (ed), Application of science in the examination of works of art (Boston), 96–102.
Tadmor M, Kedem D, Begemann D, Hauptmann F, Pernicka E and Schmitt S 1995, ‘The Nahal Mishmar hoard from the Judean desert: technology, composition and provenance’, Antiqet 27,
95–148.
Tallon F 1987, Métallurgie susienne I. De la fondation de Suse au XVIIIe siècle avant J.-C. (Paris).
Thornton C P, Lamberg-Karlovsky C C, Liezers M and Young S M 2002, ‘On pins and needles: tracing the evolution of copper-base alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran via ICP-MS analyses of
common place items’, Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 1451–1460.
Tobler A J 1950, Excavations at Tepe Gawra (Philadelphia).
Trifonov V A 1987, ‘Nekotoryie voprosy peredneaziatskikh sviazei maikopskoi kultury’, Kratkie soobshcheniya Instituta arkheologhii 192, 18–25.
Vernadsky V I 1955, Izbrannyie sochineniya. Volume II. Samorodnyie elementy (Moscow).
Wayman M L and Duke M J M 1999, ‘The effect of melting on native copper’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren and Ü Yalçin (eds), The Beginning of Metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt
Beiheft 9), 55–63.
Wertime T A 1964, ‘Man’s first encounters with metallurgy’, Science 146 (3649), 1257–1267.
Wertime T A 1973, ‘How metallurgy began: a study in diffusion and multiple innovation’, Actes du 8e CISPP (Beograd), 481–492.
Yalçin Ü and Pernicka E 1999, ‘Frühneolitische metallurgie von Asikli Höyük’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren and Ü Yalçin (eds), The Beginning of Metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9), 45–54.
Avilova L I 1996, ‘Metall Mesopotamii v rannem i srednem bronzovom veke’, Vestnik drevnei istorii 4(219), 68–81.
Bekker M and Klemm K 1979, Spravochnik po metallograficheskomu travleniyu (Moscow).
Bochkariov V S and Rezepkin A D 1980, ‘Raboty kubanskoi ekspeditsii’, in B A Rybakov (ed), Arkheologhitcheskiye otkrytiya 1979 goda (Moscow), 97–98.
Braidwood R J and Braidwood L S 1950, Excavations in the Plain of Antioch, I. The earlier Assemblages phases, A-J (Chicago: The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications 61).
Braidwood R J, Burke J B and Nachtrieb N H 1951, ‘Ancient Syrian coppers and bronzes’, Journal of Chemical Education 28(2), 87–96.
Buchholz H G 1967, ‘Analysen prähistoricher Metallfunde aus Zypern und den Nachbarländern’, Berliner Jahrbuch für Vor- und Frühgeschichte 7, 232–256.
Budd P 1991, ‘Metallographic investigation of eneolithic arsenical copper artefacts from Mondsee, Austria’, Historical Metallurgy 25(2), 99–108.
Chernykh E N 1966, Istoria drevneishei metallurghii Vostochnoi Yevropy (Moscow).
Childe V G 1944, ‘Archaeological ages and technological stages’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 74(1–2), 7–24.
Coghlan H H 1951, Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Old World (Oxford: Occasional Papers on Technology 4).
Coghlan H H 1975, Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Old World (Oxford: Occasional Papers on Technology 4, 2nd edn).
Contenau G and Ghirshman R 1935, Fouilles de Tepe-Guyan (Paris).
Craddock P T 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh).
Forbes R J 1971, Studies in ancient technology Vol 8 (Leiden).
France-Lanord A and Contenson H de 1973, ‘Une pendeloque en cuivre natif de Ramad’, Palêorient 1, 107–115.
Frangipane M 1985 ‘Early development of metallurgy in the Near East’, in M Liverani, A Palmieri and R Peroni (eds), Studi di paletnologia in onore di Salvatore in Puglisi (Roma), 215–229.
Gallay A and Lahouze M 1976 ‘Pour une préhistoire de la métallurgie (Europe, Proche-Orient)’, Archives Suisses d’Antropologie Générale 40, 137–200.
Garstang J 1953, Prehistoric Mersin (Oxford).
Ghirshman R 1938, Fouilles de Sialk, II (Paris).
Hall E T 1961, ‘Surface-enrichment of buried metals’, Archaeometry 4, 62–67.
Hauptmann A and Palmieri A 2000, ‘Metal production in the Eastern Mediterranean at the transition of the 4th/3rd millennium: case studies from Arslantepe’, in Ü Yalçin (ed), Anatolien Metal I (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 13), 75–82.
Hauptmann A, Smitt-Stecker S, Begeman F and Palmieri A 2002, ‘Chemical composition and lead isotopes of metal objects from the “Royal” tomb and other related finds at Arslantepe, Eastern Anatolia’, Palêorient 28(2), 43–70.
Hauptmann A and Weisgerber G 1985, ‘Vom Kupfer zur Bronze zum frühesten Berg- und Hüttenwesen’, in A Hauptmann (ed), Archaeologische Bronzen, Antike Kunst, Moderne Technik
(Berlin), 16–35.
Heskel D 1981, ‘The development of pyrotechnology in Iran during the fourth and third millennia BC’, unpublished PhD thesis, Harvard University.
Heskel D, Lamberg-Karlovsky C 1980, ‘An alternative sequence for the development of metallurgy: Tepe Yahya, Iran’, in T A Wertime and J D Muhly (eds), The coming of the age of iron (New Haven), 229–265.
Korenevsky S N 2004, Drevneishiye zemledeltsy I skotovody Predkavkaziya (Moscow).
La Niece S 1990, ‘Silver plating on copper, bronze and brass’, Antiquaries Journal 70(1), 102–114.
Maddin R, Muhly J D and Stech T 1999, ‘Early metalworking at Çayönü’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka and Ü Jalçin (eds), The beginning of metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9),
37–44.
Mallowan M E L and Rose J C 1935, ‘Excavations at Tell Arpachiyah 1933’, Iraq 2, 1–178.
McKerrell H and Tylecote R F 1972, ‘The working of copper-arsenic alloys’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 38, 209–218.
Markovin V I and Munchaev R M 2003, Severnyi Kavkaz. Ocherki drevnei I srednevekovoi istorii i kultury (Moscow).
Meeks N 1993, ‘Surface characterization of tinned bronze, high tin bronze, tinned iron and arsenical bronzes’, in S La Niece and P Craddock (eds), Metal plating and patination (Oxford),
266–273.
Mikhalevich G P and Saiko E V 1975, ‘Tekhnicheskiye kharakteristiki i priyomy obrabotki metallov po traktatu 1301 goda Kashani’, Soobsheniya Vsesoyuznoi nauchno-issledovatelskoi laboratorii konservatsii i restavratsii 30, 29–57.
Moorey P R S 1999, Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries. The archaeological evidence (Oxford).
Muhly J D 1980, ‘The bronze age setting’, in T A Wertime and J D Muhly (eds), The coming of the age of iron (New Haven), 26–67.
Muhly J D, Wheeler T S and Maddin R 1980, ‘New research on ancient copper and copper alloys’ in E A Slater and J D Tate (eds), Proceedings of the 16th international symposium on archaeometry and archaeological prospection (Edinburgh), 248–267.
Müller-Karpe M 1990, ‘Metallgefässe des dritten Jahrtausends in Mesopotamien’, Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 20, 161–176.
Müller-Karpe M 1993, Metallgefässe in Iraq I (von den Anfängen bis zur Akkad-Zeit) (Stuttgart: Prähistorische Bronzefunde 2(14).
Munchaev R M 1994, ‘Maikopskaia kultura’, in K K Kushnariova and V I Markovin (eds), Epokha bronzy Kavkaza I Srednei Azii. Ranniaya I sredniaya bronza Kavkaza (Moscow), 158–255.
Munchaev R M and Merpert N Y 1981, Rannezemledelcheskiye poseleniya Severnoi Mesopotamii (Moscow).
Neuninger H, Pittioni R and Siegel M 1964, ‘Frühkeramikzeitliche Kupfergewinnung in Anatolien’, Archaeologia Austriaca 35, 98–110.
Northover J P 1989, ‘Properties and use of arsenic-copper alloys’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka and G A Wagner (eds), Old World Archaeometallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 7), 111–118.
Palmieri A 1981, ‘Excavations at Arslantepe (Malatya)’, Anatolian Studies 31, 101–119.
Palmieri A, Hauptmann A and Hess K 1998, ‘Les objets en métal du tombeau monumental d’Arslantepe de 3000 av. J.-C. (Malatya, Turquie)’, Revue d’Archéométrie 22, 39–43.
Pernicka E 1993, ‘Analytisch-chemische Untersuchungen an metallfunden von Uruk-Warka und Kiš’, in M Müller-Karpe, Metallgefässe in Iraq 1 (Stuttgart: Prähistorische Bronzefunde 2(14)), 312–316.
Pernicka E 1999, ‘Trace elements fingerprinting of ancient copper: a guide to technology or provenance?’, in S M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity (Oxford: BAR International Series 792), 163–171.
Pigott V C 1999, ‘A heartland of metallurgy. Neolithic/chalcolithic metallurgical origins on the Iranian Plateau’ in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren and Ü Yalçin (eds), The Beginning of
Metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9), 107–120.
Ravich I G 1999, ‘Metallograficheskoye issledovaniye serebrianykh monet iz kladov Srednei Azii epokhi Karakhanidov (XI-XII vv.)’, Khudozhestvennoye naslediye 17, 96–100.
Ravich I G, Ryndina N V and Shemakhanskaya M S 2001, ‘Osobennosti formirovaniya serebristykh poverkhnostei na arkheologhicheskikh obyektakh iz metalla’, in V V Zverev (ed), Issledovaniya v restavratsii (Moscow), 126–129.
Ravich I G and Shemakhanskaya M S 2005, ‘Homogenization and corrosion of copper-arsenic alloys’, in S La Niece, D Hook and N Meeks (eds), Metallurgy: a touchstone for cross-cultural interaction. Abstracts of international archaeometallurgy conference (London), 129.
Renfrew C 1972, Before civilisation: the radiocarbon revolution and prehistoric Europe (New York).
Rezepkin A D 1987, ‘Interpretatsia rospisi iz grobnitsy maikopskoi kultury bliz stanitsy Novosvobodnoi’, Kratkie soobshcheniya Instituta arkheologhii 192, 26–33.
Rezepkin A D 1991, ‘Kurgan 31 moghilnika Klady. Problemy ghenezisa I khronologhii maikopskoi kultury’ in V M Masson (ed), Drevniye kultury Prikubanya (Leningrad), 167–197.
Rovira S and Games P 1993, Las primeras etapas metallúrgicas en la península Ibérica. Estudios metalograficos (Madrid).
Ryndina N V 1985, ‘Pro vykorystannia samorodnoi midi v naidavnishiy metalurghii Blizkogo Skhodu’, Arkheologhiya 51, 11–21.
Ryndina N V 1992, ‘O periodizatsii drevneishego metalloobrabatyvayushchego proizvodstva Yugo-Vostochnoi Yevropy (neolit-eneolit)’ Vestnik Moskovskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, seriya ‘Istoria’ 6, 62–75.
Ryndina N V 1998, Drevneisheie metalloobrabatyvayushcheie proizvodstvo Yugo-Vostochnoi Yevropy (istoki I razvitiye v neoliteeneolite) (Moscow).
Ryndina N V, Kolosova G V and Indenbaum G V 1999, ‘Copper production from polymetallic sulphide ores of the north-eastern Balkan Eneolithic cultures’, Journal of Archaeological Science
26, 1059–1068.
Ryndina N V 2000, ‘O liteinykh formakh epokhi eneolita Severo-Vostochnykh Balkan’, Rossiiskaya arkheologhia 2, 5–14.
Ryndina N V 2004, ‘O zakonomernostiakh razvitiya drevneishei mednoi metallurghii Blizhnego Vostoka i Yugo-Vostochnoi
Yevropy (po dannym metallograficheskikh issledovaniy)’, Dobruja 21, 69–103.
Ryndina N V and Degtyareva A D 2002, Eneolit i bronzovyi vek (Moscow).
Ryndina N V and Konkova L V 1982, ‘O proiskhozhdenii bolshikh usatovskikh kinzhalov’, Sovetskaya arkheologhia 2, 30–42.
Ryndina N V and Yakhontova L K 1985, ‘Drevneisheie mednoie izdelie Severnoi Mesopotamii’, Sovetskaya arkheologhia 2, 155–165.
Shalev S 1988, ‘Redating the ‘Philistine sword’ at the British Museum: a case study in typology and technology’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 7, 303–311.
Shalev S, Goren J, Levy T and Northover J P 1992, ‘A chalcolithic mace head from the Negev Israel: technological aspects and culture implication’, Archaeometry 34(1), 63–71.
Shalev S 1995, ‘Metals in ancient Israel: archaeological interpretation of chemical analyses’, Israel Journal of Chemistry 35(2), 109–116.
Smith C S 1968, ‘Metallographic study of early artifacts made from native copper’, Actes du 9e Congrès International d’Histoire des Sciences Vol 4 (Warsaw), 237–252.
Smith C S 1973, ‘An examination of the arsenic-rich coating on a bronze bull from Horo Tepe’, in W J Young (ed), Application of science in the examination of works of art (Boston), 96–102.
Tadmor M, Kedem D, Begemann D, Hauptmann F, Pernicka E and Schmitt S 1995, ‘The Nahal Mishmar hoard from the Judean desert: technology, composition and provenance’, Antiqet 27,
95–148.
Tallon F 1987, Métallurgie susienne I. De la fondation de Suse au XVIIIe siècle avant J.-C. (Paris).
Thornton C P, Lamberg-Karlovsky C C, Liezers M and Young S M 2002, ‘On pins and needles: tracing the evolution of copper-base alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran via ICP-MS analyses of
common place items’, Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 1451–1460.
Tobler A J 1950, Excavations at Tepe Gawra (Philadelphia).
Trifonov V A 1987, ‘Nekotoryie voprosy peredneaziatskikh sviazei maikopskoi kultury’, Kratkie soobshcheniya Instituta arkheologhii 192, 18–25.
Vernadsky V I 1955, Izbrannyie sochineniya. Volume II. Samorodnyie elementy (Moscow).
Wayman M L and Duke M J M 1999, ‘The effect of melting on native copper’, in A Hauptmann, E Pernicka, T Rehren and Ü Yalçin (eds), The Beginning of Metallurgy (Bochum: Der Anschnitt
Beiheft 9), 55–63.
Wertime T A 1964, ‘Man’s first encounters with metallurgy’, Science 146 (3649), 1257–1267.
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How to Cite
The potential of metallography in investigations of early objects made of copper and copper-based alloys. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 43(1), 1-18. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/175
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