Iron in 1790: production statistics 1787-96 and the arrival of puddling
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Published
Nov 9, 2021
Abstract
The 1780s and 1790s were a period of great change in the British iron industry. These decades saw a rapid transition from most bar iron being made with charcoal in finery forges and hammers to the use of reverberatory furnaces fuelled with coal, and the iron being rolled into bars instead of hammer-forged. This change is illustrated by a series of lists, of which the fullest and most important was probably compiled in 1790, but partly updated in 1794. The list provides good evidence of the spread of potting and stamping and of a process to recycle scrap iron, but has a few surprising omissions. The subsequent successful adoption of puddling depended on the production of finers’ metal, developed at Merthyr Tydfil in about 1791. This only gradually replaced the stamping process, which was the first to produce good bar iron without charcoal.
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References
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Anon 1907-8, ‘Local partnership deeds from ms. in collection of Richard Welford’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne (3rd ser) 3, 169-171.
Anon TS n d, ‘Blast furnaces of Sheffield’, Sheffield Local Studies Library, MP.2540M.
Ashton T S 1924, Iron and steel in the industrial revolution (Manchester).
Åström S-E 1982, ‘Swedish iron and the English iron industry about 1700’, Scandinavian Economic History Review 30, 129-41.
Beckett J V 1981, Coal and tobacco: the Lowthers and the economic development of west Cumberland 1660-1760 (Cambridge).
Beddoes T 1791, ‘An account of some appearances attending the conversion of cast into malleable iron’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 81, 222-36.
Belford P 2010, ‘Five centuries of ironworking: excavations at Wednesbury Forge’ Post-Medieval Archaeology 44, 1-53.
Berg T and P (trans) 2001, R R Angerstein’s illustrated travel diary 1753-5 (London).
Booth T 2011, Watermills of the river Rea in south Shropshire (Congleton).
Butler J c1992, ‘John Wilkinson’, typescript, IGMT Butler Papers, box 6, no. 92.
Broadbridge S R 1980, ‘British industry in 1767: Extracts from the travel diary of Joseph Banks’, History of Technology 5, 119-142.
Chapman S D 1981, Stanton and Staveley: a business history (Cambridge).
Chappell E L 1940, Historic Melingriffith: an account of the Pentyrch iron works and Melin Griffith tinplate works (2nd edn Cardiff 1995).
Clayton A K 1955, The story of the Elsecar and the Milton Iron Works from their opening until 1848; typescript in Barnsley Local Studies Library, class B672.
Cleere H and Crossley D 1995, The iron industry of the Weald, (2nd edn Cardiff).
Cossons N (ed) 1972, Rees’ manufacturing industry (Newton Abbot).
Cranstone D 1997, Derwentcote steel furnace (Lancaster).
Cranstone D 2011, ‘From slitting mill to alloy steel: the development of the Swalwell ironworks’, Industrial Archaeology Review 33(1), 40-57.
Crocker G (ed) 2000, Alexander Raby, ironmaster: proceedings of a conference held at Cobham on 28 November 1998 (Guildford).
Crossley D and Saville R (eds) 1991, The Fuller letters 1728-1755: guns, slaves and finance (Lewes: Sussex Record Society 76).
Crossley D 1995, ‘The blast furnace at Rockley, South Yorkshire’, Archaeological Journal 152, 391-421.
Dalrymple Sir J 1784, An address and proposals from Sir J.D. bart. on the subject of the coal, tar and iron branches of trade (Edinburgh).
Deane P 1981, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge).
Dickinson H W and Jenkins R 1981, James Watt and the steam engine (Ashbourne).
Dilworth D 1976, The Tame mills of Staffordshire (Chichester).
Edwards I 1972, ‘Some notes on John Wilkinson and his relations with Boulton and Watt’, Denbighshire Historical Society Transactions 21, 109-16.
Elsas M (ed) 1960, Iron in the making: Dowlais Iron Company letters 1782-1860 (Cardiff).
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Flinn M W 1962, Men of iron: The Crowleys in the early iron industry (Edinburgh).
Gale W K V 1966, The Black Country iron industry: a technical history (London).
Gale W K V 1967, The British iron and steel industry: a technical history (Newton Abbot).
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Griffiths S 1873, Griffiths’ Guide to the iron trade (London).
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Hammersley G F 1973, ‘The charcoal iron industry and its fuel 1540-1750’, Economic History Review 2 ser 26, 593-613.
Hancock H B and N B Wilkinson 1959, ‘Joshua Gilpin: an American manufacturer in England and Wales 1795-1801’ Transactions of the Newcomen Society 32, 15-28.
Hayes G G L 1990, ‘Introduction’, in C Evans (ed), The letterbook of Richard Crawshay 1788-97 (Cardiff: South Wales Record Society 6), ix-xxiii.
Hayman R 2004, ‘The Cranage Brothers and eighteenth-century forge technology’ Historical Metallurgy 38(2), 113-20.
Hey D G 1977, ‘The ironworks at Chapeltown’ Transactions of the Hunter Archaeological Society 10(4), 252-9.
Hillen J 1951, Old Surrey watermills (London).
Hughes S 2005, Copperopolis: landscapes of the early industrial period in Swansea (Aberystwyth).
Hulme E W 1928-9, ‘The statistical history of the iron trade’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 9, 12-33.
Hunt, R 1856-1881, Memoirs of the Geological Survey and Museum of Practical Geology: Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom and Ireland (London); issued annually.
Hyde C K 1977, Technological change and the British iron industry 1700-1870 (Princeton NJ).
Ince L 1991, The Knight Family and the British Iron Industry 1695-1902 (Cardiff).
Ince L 1993, The south Wales iron industry 1750-1885 (Cardiff).
Ince L 2001, Neath Abbey and the Industrial Revolution (Stroud).
John, L 2000, ‘Alexander Raby, ironmaster and coalmaster’, in G Crocker (ed), Alexander Raby, ironmaster: proceedings of a conference held at Cobham on 28 November 1998 (Guildford), 36-40.
Kaplan H H 1995, Russian overseas commerce with Great Britain during the reign of Catherine II (Philadelphia: Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 218).
Kent H S K 1973, War and trade in the northern seas: Anglo-Scandinavian economic relations in the mid eighteenth century (Cambridge).
King P W 1996, ‘Early Statistics for the iron industry: a vindication’, Historical Metallurgy 30(1), 23-46.
King P W 2001-2, ‘Sir Clement Clerke and the adoption of coal in metallurgy’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 73, 33-52.
King P W 2003, ‘The cartel in oregrounds iron: trading relationships in the raw material for steel’, Journal of Industrial History 6(1), 25-48.
King P W 2005, ‘The production and consumption of bar iron in early modern England and Wales’, Economic History Review 2 ser 58 , 1-33, with corrigendum 59 (2006), 264.
King P W 2011, ‘The choice of fuel in the 18th century iron industry: the Coalbrookdale accounts reconsidered’, Economic History Review 2 ser 64, 132-156.
Lancaster J Y and Wattleworth D R 1977, The iron and steel industry of west Cumberland: an historical survey (Workington and Barrow).
Levine T H 2009, ‘Dr Thomas Beddoes: chemistry, medicine and the perils of democracy’, Notes of the Royal Society Preprint 2009. doi: 10.1098.renr.2009.0032.
Lloyd J 1906, The early history of old Welsh iron works, 1760-1840 (London).
Lloyd H 1975, The Quaker Lloyds in the Industrial Revolution (London).
Magilton J 2003, Fernhurst Furnace (Chichester: Chichester District Archaeology 2).
Morley C 1998, ‘The Walkers of Masbrough: a re-examination’, South Yorkshire Industrial History Society Journal 1, 20-38.
Morton G R and N Mutton 1967, ‘The transition to Cort’s puddling process’, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 205(7), 722-8.
Mott R A 1959-60, ‘The Coalbrookdale Horsehay Works (part II)’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 32, 43-56.
Mott R A 1983, Henry Cort: The great finer: creator of puddled iron, ed P Singer (London).
Mushet D 1798-9, ‘Historical remarks relative to the manufacture of iron and steel’, Philosophical Magazine 2, 346-53.
Mushet D 1840, Papers on iron and steel (London), 44.
Mushet D undated, ‘Blast Furnace’, in A Rees, Cyclopedia IV (unpaginated), reprinted in Cossons 1972, Vol 1.
Musson A E and Robinson E 1969, Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution (Manchester).
Mutton N 1967-8, ‘The forges at Eardington and Hampton Loade’ Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society 58(3), 235-43.
Nixon F 1969, Industrial archaeology of Derbyshire (Newton Abbot )
Page R 1979, ‘Richard and Edward Knight, ironmasters of Bringewood and Wolverley’ Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists and Field Club 43(1), 7-17.
Percy J 1864, Metallurgy II: Iron and steel (reprint Eindhoven, Netherlands, nd).
Potter J F 1982, ‘Iron making in the vicinity of Weybridge, Surrey’, Industrial Archaeology Review 6, 211-23.
Raistrick A 1989, Dynasty of ironfounders: The Darbys of Coalbrookdale, 2nd edn (York).
Raistrick A and E Allen 1939, ‘The south Yorkshire ironmasters (1690-1750)’, Economic History Review 1ser 9, 168-185.
Rees A 1800-20, Rees’ Cyclopaedia; partly reprinted in Cossons N (ed) 1972.
Riden P 1977, ‘The output of the British iron industry before 1870’, Economic History Review 2 ser 30, 442-59.
Riden P 1988, ‘The ironworks at Alderwasley and Morley Park’, Derbyshire Archaeological Journal 108, 77-107; with comment by M Johnson and postscript by author ibid, 109 (1989), 173-9.
Riden P 1992a, ‘Some unsuccessful blast furnaces of the early coke era’, Historical Metallurgy 26, 36-44.
Riden P 1992b, John Bedford and the ironworks at Cefn Cribwr (Cardiff).
Riden P 1993, A gazetteer of charcoal-fired blast furnaces in Great Britain in use since 1660, 2nd edn (Cardiff).
Riden P 1994, ‘The final phase of charcoal iron-smelting in Britain, 1660-1800’, Historical Metallurgy 28(1), 14-26.
Riden P and J G Owen 1995, British blast furnace statistics 1790-1980 (Cardiff).
Robinson E and D McKie 1970, Partners in science: letters of James Watt and Joseph Black (London).
Scrivenor H 1841, A comprehensive history of the iron trade (also 2nd edn 1854).
Smeaton J 1812, Reports of the late John Smeaton ... (London).
Smeaton J 1950, Smeaton’s designs: a catalogue of civil and mechanical engineering designs (1741-1792) of John Smeaton ... in library of Royal Society (London: Newcomen Society extra
publication 5).
Smith D M 1965, Industrial archaeology of the East Midlands (Newton Abbot).
Smith W A 1970-1,‘The contribution of the Gibbons family to the technical development of the coal and iron industries’, West Midlands Studies 4, 46-55.
Smith W E 1966, ‘The Bradley Ironworks of John Wilkinson’, Bulletin of the Historical Metallurgy Group 6 [p.57-8 in reprint edition of Bulletins 1-6]
Stidder D 1990, The watermills of Surrey (Buckingham).
Tann J 1970, The development of the factory (London).
Tann J 1979-80, ‘Mr Hornblower and his crew: steam engine pirates of the eighteenth century’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 51, 95-109.
Thorne R 2004, ‘Stuart, John, first Marquess of Bute (1744–1814)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford).
Trinder B 1973, The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire (Chichester).
Tylecote R F 1991, ‘Iron in the Industrial Revolution’, in J Day and R F Tylecote (eds), The industrial revolution in metals (London).
VCH, Victoria County History Staffordshire, 20 (1984).
VCH, Victoria County History Shropshire, 8 (1968) and 10 (1998).
Wood O 1988, West Cumberland coal 1600-1982 (Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society extra series 24).
Alexander E 2002, ‘Henry Cort and the Black Country’, The Blackcountryman 35(4), 17-22.
Andrews C R 1956, The Story of Wortley Ironworks (3rd edn Nottingham1975).
Anon 1907-8, ‘Local partnership deeds from ms. in collection of Richard Welford’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne (3rd ser) 3, 169-171.
Anon TS n d, ‘Blast furnaces of Sheffield’, Sheffield Local Studies Library, MP.2540M.
Ashton T S 1924, Iron and steel in the industrial revolution (Manchester).
Åström S-E 1982, ‘Swedish iron and the English iron industry about 1700’, Scandinavian Economic History Review 30, 129-41.
Beckett J V 1981, Coal and tobacco: the Lowthers and the economic development of west Cumberland 1660-1760 (Cambridge).
Beddoes T 1791, ‘An account of some appearances attending the conversion of cast into malleable iron’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 81, 222-36.
Belford P 2010, ‘Five centuries of ironworking: excavations at Wednesbury Forge’ Post-Medieval Archaeology 44, 1-53.
Berg T and P (trans) 2001, R R Angerstein’s illustrated travel diary 1753-5 (London).
Booth T 2011, Watermills of the river Rea in south Shropshire (Congleton).
Butler J c1992, ‘John Wilkinson’, typescript, IGMT Butler Papers, box 6, no. 92.
Broadbridge S R 1980, ‘British industry in 1767: Extracts from the travel diary of Joseph Banks’, History of Technology 5, 119-142.
Chapman S D 1981, Stanton and Staveley: a business history (Cambridge).
Chappell E L 1940, Historic Melingriffith: an account of the Pentyrch iron works and Melin Griffith tinplate works (2nd edn Cardiff 1995).
Clayton A K 1955, The story of the Elsecar and the Milton Iron Works from their opening until 1848; typescript in Barnsley Local Studies Library, class B672.
Cleere H and Crossley D 1995, The iron industry of the Weald, (2nd edn Cardiff).
Cossons N (ed) 1972, Rees’ manufacturing industry (Newton Abbot).
Cranstone D 1997, Derwentcote steel furnace (Lancaster).
Cranstone D 2011, ‘From slitting mill to alloy steel: the development of the Swalwell ironworks’, Industrial Archaeology Review 33(1), 40-57.
Crocker G (ed) 2000, Alexander Raby, ironmaster: proceedings of a conference held at Cobham on 28 November 1998 (Guildford).
Crossley D and Saville R (eds) 1991, The Fuller letters 1728-1755: guns, slaves and finance (Lewes: Sussex Record Society 76).
Crossley D 1995, ‘The blast furnace at Rockley, South Yorkshire’, Archaeological Journal 152, 391-421.
Dalrymple Sir J 1784, An address and proposals from Sir J.D. bart. on the subject of the coal, tar and iron branches of trade (Edinburgh).
Deane P 1981, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge).
Dickinson H W and Jenkins R 1981, James Watt and the steam engine (Ashbourne).
Dilworth D 1976, The Tame mills of Staffordshire (Chichester).
Edwards I 1972, ‘Some notes on John Wilkinson and his relations with Boulton and Watt’, Denbighshire Historical Society Transactions 21, 109-16.
Elsas M (ed) 1960, Iron in the making: Dowlais Iron Company letters 1782-1860 (Cardiff).
Evans C (ed) 1990, The letterbook of Richard Crawshay 1788-97 (Cardiff: South Wales Record Society 6).
Evans C 1992, ‘Manufacturing iron in the north east during the eighteenth century: the case of Bedlington’ Northern History 28, 178-196.
Evans C 1993a, The labyrinth of flames: work and social conflict in early industrial Merthyr Tydfil (Cardiff).
Evans C 1993b, ‘The statistical surveys of the British iron industry in 1797-8 and 1806’ Historical Metallurgy 27(2), 84-101.
Flinn M W 1962, Men of iron: The Crowleys in the early iron industry (Edinburgh).
Gale W K V 1966, The Black Country iron industry: a technical history (London).
Gale W K V 1967, The British iron and steel industry: a technical history (Newton Abbot).
Gale W K V 1969, Iron and Steel (London).
Gale W K V 1971, The iron and steel industry: a dictionary of terms (Newton Abbot).
Griffiths S 1873, Griffiths’ Guide to the iron trade (London).
Gross J (ed) 2001, The Diary of Charles Wood of Cyfarthfa Ironworks, Merthyr Tydfil 1766-1769 (Cardiff).
Hammersley G F 1973, ‘The charcoal iron industry and its fuel 1540-1750’, Economic History Review 2 ser 26, 593-613.
Hancock H B and N B Wilkinson 1959, ‘Joshua Gilpin: an American manufacturer in England and Wales 1795-1801’ Transactions of the Newcomen Society 32, 15-28.
Hayes G G L 1990, ‘Introduction’, in C Evans (ed), The letterbook of Richard Crawshay 1788-97 (Cardiff: South Wales Record Society 6), ix-xxiii.
Hayman R 2004, ‘The Cranage Brothers and eighteenth-century forge technology’ Historical Metallurgy 38(2), 113-20.
Hey D G 1977, ‘The ironworks at Chapeltown’ Transactions of the Hunter Archaeological Society 10(4), 252-9.
Hillen J 1951, Old Surrey watermills (London).
Hughes S 2005, Copperopolis: landscapes of the early industrial period in Swansea (Aberystwyth).
Hulme E W 1928-9, ‘The statistical history of the iron trade’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 9, 12-33.
Hunt, R 1856-1881, Memoirs of the Geological Survey and Museum of Practical Geology: Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom and Ireland (London); issued annually.
Hyde C K 1977, Technological change and the British iron industry 1700-1870 (Princeton NJ).
Ince L 1991, The Knight Family and the British Iron Industry 1695-1902 (Cardiff).
Ince L 1993, The south Wales iron industry 1750-1885 (Cardiff).
Ince L 2001, Neath Abbey and the Industrial Revolution (Stroud).
John, L 2000, ‘Alexander Raby, ironmaster and coalmaster’, in G Crocker (ed), Alexander Raby, ironmaster: proceedings of a conference held at Cobham on 28 November 1998 (Guildford), 36-40.
Kaplan H H 1995, Russian overseas commerce with Great Britain during the reign of Catherine II (Philadelphia: Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 218).
Kent H S K 1973, War and trade in the northern seas: Anglo-Scandinavian economic relations in the mid eighteenth century (Cambridge).
King P W 1996, ‘Early Statistics for the iron industry: a vindication’, Historical Metallurgy 30(1), 23-46.
King P W 2001-2, ‘Sir Clement Clerke and the adoption of coal in metallurgy’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 73, 33-52.
King P W 2003, ‘The cartel in oregrounds iron: trading relationships in the raw material for steel’, Journal of Industrial History 6(1), 25-48.
King P W 2005, ‘The production and consumption of bar iron in early modern England and Wales’, Economic History Review 2 ser 58 , 1-33, with corrigendum 59 (2006), 264.
King P W 2011, ‘The choice of fuel in the 18th century iron industry: the Coalbrookdale accounts reconsidered’, Economic History Review 2 ser 64, 132-156.
Lancaster J Y and Wattleworth D R 1977, The iron and steel industry of west Cumberland: an historical survey (Workington and Barrow).
Levine T H 2009, ‘Dr Thomas Beddoes: chemistry, medicine and the perils of democracy’, Notes of the Royal Society Preprint 2009. doi: 10.1098.renr.2009.0032.
Lloyd J 1906, The early history of old Welsh iron works, 1760-1840 (London).
Lloyd H 1975, The Quaker Lloyds in the Industrial Revolution (London).
Magilton J 2003, Fernhurst Furnace (Chichester: Chichester District Archaeology 2).
Morley C 1998, ‘The Walkers of Masbrough: a re-examination’, South Yorkshire Industrial History Society Journal 1, 20-38.
Morton G R and N Mutton 1967, ‘The transition to Cort’s puddling process’, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 205(7), 722-8.
Mott R A 1959-60, ‘The Coalbrookdale Horsehay Works (part II)’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 32, 43-56.
Mott R A 1983, Henry Cort: The great finer: creator of puddled iron, ed P Singer (London).
Mushet D 1798-9, ‘Historical remarks relative to the manufacture of iron and steel’, Philosophical Magazine 2, 346-53.
Mushet D 1840, Papers on iron and steel (London), 44.
Mushet D undated, ‘Blast Furnace’, in A Rees, Cyclopedia IV (unpaginated), reprinted in Cossons 1972, Vol 1.
Musson A E and Robinson E 1969, Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution (Manchester).
Mutton N 1967-8, ‘The forges at Eardington and Hampton Loade’ Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society 58(3), 235-43.
Nixon F 1969, Industrial archaeology of Derbyshire (Newton Abbot )
Page R 1979, ‘Richard and Edward Knight, ironmasters of Bringewood and Wolverley’ Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists and Field Club 43(1), 7-17.
Percy J 1864, Metallurgy II: Iron and steel (reprint Eindhoven, Netherlands, nd).
Potter J F 1982, ‘Iron making in the vicinity of Weybridge, Surrey’, Industrial Archaeology Review 6, 211-23.
Raistrick A 1989, Dynasty of ironfounders: The Darbys of Coalbrookdale, 2nd edn (York).
Raistrick A and E Allen 1939, ‘The south Yorkshire ironmasters (1690-1750)’, Economic History Review 1ser 9, 168-185.
Rees A 1800-20, Rees’ Cyclopaedia; partly reprinted in Cossons N (ed) 1972.
Riden P 1977, ‘The output of the British iron industry before 1870’, Economic History Review 2 ser 30, 442-59.
Riden P 1988, ‘The ironworks at Alderwasley and Morley Park’, Derbyshire Archaeological Journal 108, 77-107; with comment by M Johnson and postscript by author ibid, 109 (1989), 173-9.
Riden P 1992a, ‘Some unsuccessful blast furnaces of the early coke era’, Historical Metallurgy 26, 36-44.
Riden P 1992b, John Bedford and the ironworks at Cefn Cribwr (Cardiff).
Riden P 1993, A gazetteer of charcoal-fired blast furnaces in Great Britain in use since 1660, 2nd edn (Cardiff).
Riden P 1994, ‘The final phase of charcoal iron-smelting in Britain, 1660-1800’, Historical Metallurgy 28(1), 14-26.
Riden P and J G Owen 1995, British blast furnace statistics 1790-1980 (Cardiff).
Robinson E and D McKie 1970, Partners in science: letters of James Watt and Joseph Black (London).
Scrivenor H 1841, A comprehensive history of the iron trade (also 2nd edn 1854).
Smeaton J 1812, Reports of the late John Smeaton ... (London).
Smeaton J 1950, Smeaton’s designs: a catalogue of civil and mechanical engineering designs (1741-1792) of John Smeaton ... in library of Royal Society (London: Newcomen Society extra
publication 5).
Smith D M 1965, Industrial archaeology of the East Midlands (Newton Abbot).
Smith W A 1970-1,‘The contribution of the Gibbons family to the technical development of the coal and iron industries’, West Midlands Studies 4, 46-55.
Smith W E 1966, ‘The Bradley Ironworks of John Wilkinson’, Bulletin of the Historical Metallurgy Group 6 [p.57-8 in reprint edition of Bulletins 1-6]
Stidder D 1990, The watermills of Surrey (Buckingham).
Tann J 1970, The development of the factory (London).
Tann J 1979-80, ‘Mr Hornblower and his crew: steam engine pirates of the eighteenth century’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 51, 95-109.
Thorne R 2004, ‘Stuart, John, first Marquess of Bute (1744–1814)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford).
Trinder B 1973, The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire (Chichester).
Tylecote R F 1991, ‘Iron in the Industrial Revolution’, in J Day and R F Tylecote (eds), The industrial revolution in metals (London).
VCH, Victoria County History Staffordshire, 20 (1984).
VCH, Victoria County History Shropshire, 8 (1968) and 10 (1998).
Wood O 1988, West Cumberland coal 1600-1982 (Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society extra series 24).
How to Cite
King, P. (2021). Iron in 1790: production statistics 1787-96 and the arrival of puddling. Historical Metallurgy, 45(2), 102-133. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/132
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How to Cite
King, P. (2021). Iron in 1790: production statistics 1787-96 and the arrival of puddling. Historical Metallurgy, 45(2), 102-133. https://www.hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/132